Significance of wild relatives of cultivated plants and domesticated animals

 Significance of wild relatives of cultivated plants and domesticated animals

Domestication is the process by which Plants, animals and microbes are selected from the wild and adapted to habitats created by humans.  It is also termed as cultivation in the case of plants and microbes.

Modern livestock breeds and crop species are bred to be highly productive. Chickens have been bred to maintain a uniform size for cost effective production, while fruit and vegetables have been bred to have thick, juicy flesh. To achieve these desirable characteristics, plants and animals are bred with ever more genetically similar partners, leaving a narrow and homogeneous gene pool that make their species sensitive to diseases and environmental changes.

Wild relatives of domesticated plants and animals are the ancestral species from which crops and livestock have descended, or their near relatives. The pigs that are raised for food are descended from wild boar (Sus scrofa) and chickens are descended from red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus). These wild species are sufficiently closely related to domestic varieties so that they could crossbreed to increase the genetic diversity in the domesticated species.

The wild relatives of domesticated species inhabit the wild areas of nature, the rocky and icebound high mountain ranges, dense tropical forests and deserts. Genetic diversity helps species survive into the future. They continued to evolve under natural conditions and might contain genes that will help them to fight diseases and remain productive in a changing environment.

As climate changes are resulting in some growing regions hotter and drier, wild relatives of corn that are drought-resistant could be crossbred with farmed varieties to make them more resilent. As new pathogens emerge, wild relatives of cows could crossbreed with cattle to reinforce their immune defense.

Few of the ancestral species and wild relatives are common as jungle fowl or wild boar. But wild relatives of a large number of domesticated plants and animals are either unknown or highly threatened or even on the verge of extinction. Baer’s pochard (Aythya baeri) is a critically endangered duck species that is closely related to the domestic duck. The Kouprey (Bos sauveli) is a wild relative of the cow and may even be extinct in the wild.

We, humans rely on very few species for food and use commercially-bred livestock and crops and are gradually losing the wild relatives (the reservoir of genetic diversity). The threat of climate change makes these genetic resources increasingly important for surviving the knock-on effects of climate change on agriculture.

Protecting wild relatives of plants

Crop wild relatives or CWR are wild plant species genetically related to cultivated crops. They are untended by humans and continue to evolve in the wild. They are a fantastic source of plant genetic diversity and are continually developing traits such as drought tolerance or pest resistance and they can be of use to farmers and breeders to cross with domesticated crops to produce new varieties.

CWR occur in a wide range of habitats but are at great risk as habitats are being degraded and lost worldwide. The key to successful crop improvement is the continued supply of genetic variability and beneficial traits contained in this diversity.  The wild relatives of modern crops are the source of diversity, providing genes with improved nutritional quality, resistance to pests and diseases, drought and extreme temperatures.

The plant genetic resources (PGR) can be conserved as stored collected material ex situ in gene banks or through in situ approaches. The in situ conservation allows populations to continue to evolve and generate new variation in their habitat, but it is a complex and multidisciplinary process

The Importance of Crop Wild Relatives

·         They are a source of resistance against pests and diseases

·         They can enhance the nutritional quality of crops

·         Their traits can provide tolerance to Extreme temperature, Drought or Salinity

Protecting wild relatives of animals

The modern livestock production is highly specialized and is based on very few breeds for the intensive production of meat, milk or eggs in highly controlled conditions. They require intensive and high levels of management and high levels of inputs such as highly digestible, high-protein feed, medication, etc. The small number of commercial breeds suited for this kind of intensive production do not offer an adequate genetic reservoir for the future. The turkey that is mass-produced on farms in North America and Europe has been selected for a meaty breast and this bird can no longer breed unassisted. This broad-breasted breed (accounts for 99 % of turkeys in the US) would become extinct in one generation without human assistance in the form of artificial insemination.

Several Indigenous livestock breeds often possess valuable traits such as disease resistance, high fertility, good maternal qualities, unique product qualities, longevity and adaptation to harsh conditions and poor quality feed, all desirable qualities for low-input, sustainable agriculture.  The Genetic diversity in these domestic animal breeds allows farmers to select or develop new breeds in response to changes in the environment, threats of disease, human nutrition requirements, changing market conditions and societal needs, all of which are generally unpredictable.

In 1992, FAO launched a comprehensive programme for the global conservation of animal genetic resources which includes:

·         A global inventory of animal genetic resources including a database to characterize and enumerate all breeds of livestock available.

·         Action to identify breeds at risk of extinction as well as ways of protecting them.

·    Promotion of programmes in developing countries to conserve endangered breeds in their native habitats.

·         Improvement of livestock breeding capacities in the developing world.

Lose of wild relatives of domesticated animals or plants due to biodiversity loss seriously threatens the resilience of our food systems, by leaving crops and livestock genetically poorer. A transformation in our relationship with nature is highly needed. We will need wild relatives of important food species to ensure that genetic diversity can enhance food security in an increasingly uncertain future.  Conservation of plant and animal genetic diversity is essential for global food security and to meet the challenges of the future.

References

https://theconversation.com/

http://www.fao.org/3/v1650T0y.htm

https://www.bioversityinternational.org/cwr/

http://www.cropwildrelatives.org/

Agrobiodiversity and Loss of agrobiodiversity

 Agrobiodiversity and Loss of agrobiodiversity

Agrobiodiversity is the component of biodiversity that contributes to food and agriculture production. It is a vital subset of general biodiversity and forms the basis of food security and livelihood security of billions of people.

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is the genetic resources for food and agriculture.  It includes animals, plants, and microorganisms used directly or indirectly for food and agriculture.  It includes the following:

·         Crop varieties, breeds of livestock, fish species, and various wild species within field, forest, rangeland and aquatic ecosystems

·         Non-harvested species such as soil microbiota and pollinators, and other species in the wider environment.

This agricultural biodiversity is the product of the application of the knowledge and skills used by women and men to develop agriculture, livestock production and aquaculture.  It is known that some 7,000 species of plants and hundreds of animal species and thousands of aquatic plants are edible, still human societies have focused on only a few species to feed themselves. Only about 100 crops, a handful of grasses and a dozen animal species are considered to be essential for feeding the world. Just four crops provide more than half the dietary energy for the whole world’s population — maize, potatoes, rice and wheat. 

This dependence on a few species as a food source is a potentially dangerous strategy, since there is high risk from pest or disease epidemics and climate change. Fortunately, our resourceful indigenous peoples, farmers, forest dwellers, pastoralists and fisher-folk have developed a myriad of varieties of every crop, breeds of livestock and sub-species of fish and other aquatic organisms. Thus these species are available adapted to survive different ecosystems, climates and pest and disease threats. By developing, selecting and improving local varieties and livestock breeds, swapping and sharing seeds and animals amongst themselves, agricultural biodiversity has been maintained.

The exchange of seeds and breeds across the world has resulted in a vast number of locally adapted varieties and breeds. Maize, which originated in Mexico, is a staple crop in Africa and Asia, America and Europe.  Apples originated in the Himalayas and there are varieties suited in all temperate regions of the world. Rice came from S E Asia, potatoes from Peru, and are cultivated throughout world.

The biosphere is dependent on agricultural biodiversity. For every crop variety, livestock breed or aquatic organism growing on a farm or pasture or in ponds, there are thousands of other species on which it depends — other plants, animals, insects, pollinators, predators and soil biota (fungi, bacteria, soil insects, worms). In one teaspoon of healthy soil there are estimated to be more than 100 million soil organisms of some 50,000 different species, each with its specific functions and niches. Pollinators, including bees, provide the fertilization possible. All of these are interdependent life-support systems that sustain local ecosystems.  These ecosystems provide a productive environment, clean water, healthy top-soils, living landscapes, clean air and act as a sink for excess carbon dioxide.

Agroecosystems are determined by three factors: the genetic resources, the physical environment and the human management practices. The interaction between these factors determines the evolutionary process and eventually results in genetic material that is well adapted to local abiotic and biotic environmental variation.

Agricultural biodiversity provides the important raw material for improving the quality of crops, livestock, and fish. It will create opportunities for entrepreneurship from a whole range of value-added foods, medicines, nutraceuticals, biofuel, and other sources. On a global scale, nearly 2.5 billion people depend directly on wild and traditionally cultivated plant species to meet their daily needs.

Loss of Agrobiodiversity

For over 12 000 years, agricultural activities played an important role in sustaining and strengthening food, nutrition, health, and livelihood security.  Now, agrobiodiversity is under threat by the globalization of food, intellectual property systems and industrial food production.  Agricultural biodiversity is disappearing and the scale of loss is extensive. With the disappearance of harvested species, a wide range of unharvested species also decline or disappear.

The genetic erosion of agricultural biodiversity is also intensified by the loss of forest cover, coastal wetlands, and other wild uncultivated areas, and by the destruction of the aquatic environment. This leads to losses of wild relatives which are important for the development of biodiversity.

There are many causes for declining Agrobiodiversity and the principal underlying causes are the following:

·         The rapid expansion of industrial and Green Revolution agriculture, intensive livestock production, and industrial fisheries and aquaculture.

·         Globalization of the food system and marketing and the industrial patenting and intellectual property systems of living organisms.

These has led to the widespread cultivation and rearing of fewer varieties and breeds for a more uniform and less diverse, but more competitive, global market.

Genetic erosion is the loss of genetic diversity and include the loss of individual genes and combinations of genes.  The main cause of genetic erosion in crops is the replacement of local varieties by improved or exotic varieties and species. As old varieties in farmers’ fields are replaced by newer ones, genetic erosion frequently occurs because the genes and gene complexes found in the diverse farmers’ varieties are not contained in the modern variety. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) estimate that more than 90 per cent of crop varieties have disappeared from farmers’ fields in the past 100 years. Agricultural plant varieties are continuing to disappear at 2 per cent a year. Livestock breeds are being lost at 5 per cent annually.

Genetic Engineering or Genetic modification is a threat to both the genetic integrity of agricultural biodiversity and its ownership.

·         The location of an inserted gene, the impact of modification of the genome and the impact and location of promoters is unknown in most cases and could have long-term deleterious effects.

·         The genetically modified organisms (GMOs) may produce unexpected proteins that could cause allergies in humans

·         The impacts GMOs may have on other living organisms and the environment are unpredictable.

·         The resultant gene constructs could spread through the biosphere by way of horizontal gene transfer, through seeds, pollen, soil micro-organisms and so on, with unknown consequences.

The seven principal GM crops grown in 1998 were soybean, maize, cotton, canola (rapeseed), potato, squash, and papaya.

Genetic Patents - The insertion of patented genes into plants and animals, using genetic engineering technologies, transfers ownership of those plants and animals to the gene’s patent holders.  This will result in privatization of the variety through patents and other intellectual property rights.

Terminator Technologies - Threats also arise from the development of Terminator Technologies. This involves a GMO having Genetic Use Restriction Technologies (GURTs), that limit a plant’s ability to produce certain traits. The most dramatic of these is the variant that prevents germination of seeds produced by a plant. This result in greater dependence on formal seed markets by the farmers.

Agricultural biodiversity was developed through the free exchange of seeds and other genetic resources and is better conserved and utilized through common access arrangements and the realization of community, farmers’ and traditional rights.\

References

• Emerging Consequences of Biotechnology - Biodiversity Loss and IPR Issues, Krishna Dronamaju, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

• Biosphere - Ecosystems and Biodiversity Loss, Dana Desonie, Chelsea House

Threatened species and IUCN Red List categories

 Threatened species and IUCN Red List categories

The World Conservation Union was founded as the International Union for the Protection of Nature in October 1948 in Fontainebleau, France. It changed its name to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1956 and was also known as the World Conservation Union (IUCN) from 1990 to 2008. This is the world’s oldest global environmental organization. Its headquarters are in Gland, Switz.  The IUCN maintains the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species or the IUCN Red List or Red Data List was founded in 1964. 

It is an inventory aimed for the global conservation of biological species. It is the world’s most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species.  It provides information about range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions.

The IUCN uses a set of five quantitative criteria to assess the extinction risk of a given species. These criteria are

A.    The rate of population decline

B.     The geographic range

C.     Whether the species already possesses a small population size

D.    Whether the species is very small or lives in a restricted area

E.     Whether the results of a quantitative analysis indicate a high probability of extinction in the wild

Based on the data on these criteria, IUCN Red List classify species into nine groups. They are

1.      Extinct (EX) – the species is no longer existing.  They are the species species in which the last individual has died or where systematic and time-appropriate surveys failed to log even a single individual

2.      Extinct in the wild (EW) – the members of the species survive only in captivity, cultivation and/or outside their native geographical range

3.      Critically endangered (CR) – these are in a particularly and extremely critical state.   These are the species having a rapid population declines of 80 - 90 % over the previous 10 years (or three generations) or a current population size of less than 50 individuals or other factors.

4.      Endangered (EN) – very high risk of extinction in the wild, meets any of criteria A to E for Endangered. These species possess a very high risk of extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 50 - 70 % over the previous 10 years (or three generations) or a current population size of less than 250 individuals, or other factors

5.      Vulnerable (VU) – meets one of the 5 red list criteria and thus considered to be at high risk extinction without further human intervention.  These species possess a very high risk of extinction as a result of rapid population declines of 30 - 50 % over the previous 10 years (or three generations) or a current population size of less than 1000 individuals, or other factors

6.      Near threatened (NT) – these species are close to being at high risk of extinction in the near future.

7.      Least concern (LC) – unlikely to become extinct in the near future.  The population is abundant

8.      Data deficient (DD) – these are the species regarding which the data related to their risk of extinction is unavailable.

9.      Not evaluated (NE) – this is a category used to include any of the species known and identified by scientific community but not assessed by the IUCN

In the IUCN Red List, "threatened" includes the categories of Critically Endangered, Endangered, and Vulnerable.

Every year scientists around the world assess and reassess species and the IUCN Red List is updated with these new data. By 2019, 96,500 species were assessed by using the IUCN Red List categories and criteria and more than 26,500 species fall into the threatened categories (CR, EN, and VU). Using the IUCN list, National governments and conservation organizations plan and implement species-protection efforts.

Extinct (EX)

Extinct in the wild (EW)

Critically endangered (CR)

Endangered (EN)

Vulnerable (VU)

Near threatened (NT)

Least concern (LC)

Data deficient (DD)

References

·         https://www.iucnredlist.org/

·         https://www.britannica.com/topic/IUCN-Red-List-of-Threatened-Species

·         https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List

·         Biosphere - Ecosystems and Biodiversity Loss, Dana Desonie, Chelsea House

 

 

 

Species extinction and Processes responsible for species extinction

Species extinction and Processes responsible for species extinction

Extinction is irreversible natural process and about 99.9% of the species that ever lived on Earth are now extinct. Extinctions are caused by long- term alterations of the environment, such as climate change, or by catastrophic events, such as asteroid impacts or by human activity such as overhunting, habitat destruction, introduction of invasive species, etc.

Like the evolution of new species, extinction is also important in the history of life.  Typically, a species becomes extinct about 10 million years after it evolves and some well adapted species such as sharks and cockroaches remain unchanged for hundreds of millions of years.

Species become extinct for two reasons. Some species die off when their numbers reduce so that they become unable to maintain a successful breeding population. Some species become extinct when they successfully evolve into new species.

Many extinctions in Earth have occurred as mass extinctions, during which 25% or more of all species are wiped out and there have been at least five major mass extinction events in earth’s history. The sixth extinction is currently under way.

Some natural causes of mass extinctions are

Plate tectonics: Continents join together and break apart and land masses also drift which affect environmental conditions including climate, the availability of coastal habitat, and the circulation of ocean currents, etc.

Climate change: Due to sudden climate changes organisms that are adapted to one climate may not be able to evolve fast enough to adapt to the new conditions and may be driven to extinction.

Volcanic eruptions: Volcanic eruptions blow ash, gases and particles into the atmosphere that cause global warming (CO2 and sulfur dioxide), global cooling (sulfuric acid aerosols and dust particles), and acid rain (sulfur and nitrogen oxides) which could bring about extinctions.  Flood basalts, voluminous eruptions of fluid lava cover thousands of square miles. The eruptions also result in changes in ocean chemistry and ocean circulation.

Asteroid impact: An asteroid is supposed to be the reason for the extinctions of the dinosaurs and

many other species on land and in the oceans 65 million years ago.

Humans and Extinction: Now Earth is entering into the sixth mass extinction event and this is due to the destructive effects of one single species, humans.

During the Pleistocene period, wooly mammoths and saber toothed cats were among the large mammals that dominated terrestrial ecosystems. The rising temperatures after the Pleistocene period resulted in the decline of these populations and many went extinct. Humans are at least partially responsible for these and other relatively recently extinctions and this hypothesis is known as human overkill hypothesis. The extinctions were caused because of over hunting, animal habitat destroyed, and alien species and disease introduction. There is a great deal of evidence for the human overkill hypothesis:

·         The post-Pleistocene extinctions did not occur simultaneously around the world. The extinctions closely follow the first appearance of humans on a continent or island.

·         Only large mammals, which are easily hunted, became extinct.

·         Climate change is another factor.

An example of human overkill. Before the arrival of the paleo-Indians, the prairies east of the Rocky Mountains were home to the greatest diversity of large mammals such as mammoths, mastodons, giant ground sloths, buffalo, lions, tigers, and enormous birds of prey. Around 13,400 years ago with the arrival of humans in North America, all of these grand creatures were extinct within 1,000 years.  In Europe and Asia, half the species of large animals, wooly mammoths, elephants, rhinos, giant deer, hyenas, lions, panthers, bison, hippos, and bears were eliminated between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago.

Human caused large numbers of extinctions on oceanic islands where due to the lack of predators, many bird species evolved to be flightless and naive. When humans arrived there the birds became easy prey for people and their cats and rats. Within 500 years of the arrival of the Maori people in New Zealand during AD 1000, the island’s 12 species of giant flightless birds called moas and many species of frogs, lizards, and other birds disappeared. Hawaii lost more than 50 species of birds after the arrival of the Polynesians.

In Africa large animals and flightless birds did not die out in a rapid rate and this is assumed to be due to the fact that, humans did not invade Africa but evolved there.  Because they evolved with humans, the animals are favored by natural selection and many were supremely adapted to running.

The millennium ecosystem assessment by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) found that the current global extinction rate is between 100 and 1,000 times higher than the average over geologic time. Entire ecosystems are being lost or altered beyond recognition. Worldwide, 30,000 species are lost per year, or about 3 per hour.

An endangered species is any plant or animal species whose ability to survive and reproduce has been jeopardized by human activities.

A threatened species is one that is likely to become endangered.

The root of the problem is human population growth, which increased from 6 million when agriculture began 10,000 years ago, to around 900 million at the beginning of the nineteenth century and by the end of the twentieth century the population increased to around 6 billion. All of these people need food, access to clean water and secure shelter and a place for their wastes.

The World Conservation Union (ICUN) projected in 2004 that about 1 million land organisms will disappear in half a century. Harvard University biologist E.O. Wilson predict that one-half of all species on Earth will be extinct by 2100.

 

 

References

 

Emerging Consequences of Biotechnology - Biodiversity Loss and IPR Issues, Krishna Dronamraju, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

Biosphere - Ecosystems and Biodiversity Loss, Dana Desonie, Chelsea House

Drivers of biodiversity loss - IV - Over-exploitation and V - Climate change

Drivers of biodiversity loss - IV - Over-exploitation or Over- harvesting of Animals and Plants

The five important drivers of biodiversity loss are

1.      Habitat loss and degradation

2.      Pollution

3.      Invasive species

4.      Over-exploitation

5.     Climate change associated with global warming

4.      Over-exploitation or Over- harvesting of Animals and Plants

More than one- third of the world’s endangered birds, fish and mammals are threatened directly by human activities such as fishing, hunting, and trading for meat and other commodities.

Wild animals are captured as pets or for skins or other luxury items while plants are taken for gardens or as ingredients in herbal medicines.

Overfishing

For millennia, the oceans supplied fish and seafood to us without any noticeable decrease in the fish populations due to their high reproductive potential. But the industrialized fishing and exploding human populations increased the demand on fisheries that resulted in overfishing.  

Fishery collapse also affect rest of the ecosystem, such as decrease in seabirds population, increase in sea urchins population, etc.  

Consumers can play a role in reducing overfishing by buying fish and seafood wisely. Information on whether fish and seafood is being harvested sustainably can be found online in lists kept by the Blue Ocean Institute (Guide to Ocean Friendly Seafood), Environmental Defense (Oceans Alive), and the Monterey Bay Aquarium (Seafood Watch Program).

Hunting

Early humans hunted animals for food, warm clothing, and other commodities. As agriculture developed, farmed foods provided people’s diet and Hunting became a sport such as big-game hunting or trophy hunting. Favorite targets are moose, caribou, bear, and elk in North America; reindeer, elk, and wolf in Europe; tiger, leopard, elephant, and wild goat in Asia; and antelope, gazelle, zebra, leopard, lion, giraffe, rhinoceros, and elephant in Africa

Innumerable species have been hunted nearly to extinction, examples are buffalo, passenger pigeon and cheetah.

When Europeans arrived in Colonial America many animals were hunted into extinction or near extinction. The American bison or the buffalo, covered the Great Plains of the United States and Canada, with a population of about 30 million. The railroad companies paid hunters to destroy the herds so that the animals did not interfere with trains by standing on the tracks. Hunting bison was also done to prevent the sustenance of the Native American tribes who were at war with the United States. By 1890, there were fewer than 750 bison left, all in zoos or protected areas.

Passenger pigeons were hunted to the last bird. They were the most abundant bird species on Earth, they lived in enormous flocks; the largest flock, of 2 billion birds even darkened the sky for several days as it flew overhead. Because passenger pigeons lived close together and were slow flyers, they were extremely easy to hunt and their meat was so cheap and was fed to hogs and slaves. The last remaining flock, approximately 250,000 birds, was killed by sport hunters in a single day in 1896. The very last passenger pigeon died in captivity in 1914.

Species of marine mammals primarily whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, sea otters are also being hunted to extinction or near extinction for their fur, oil, and meat.

The Marine Mammals Protection Act of 1972 bans taking (harvesting, hunting, capturing, or killing, or attempting to do so) or importing any marine mammals or mammal products in United States territorial waters and fisheries. Hunting land animals in developed nations is now highly regulated. These laws save significant populations of game animals and birds.

Professional hunters are sometimes hired to control animals in populated areas, such as bears in parks.

Wildlife Trade

The sale and exchange of wild animals and plants and the products made from them is known as the wildlife trade. Plants are gathered from the wild and sold for gardens or herbal medicines; animals are sold as pets, or for food, exotic leather products, furs, musical instruments, and medicines. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) by the United Nations prohibits international trade in threatened or endangered organisms, which now include more than 28,000 species of plants and 5,000 species of animals.

Bushmeat

Bushmeat is commercially hunted wild animal meat, often from Africa. Recent studies show that between one and five million tons of wild animal meat are taken annually from the Congo Basin in West Africa.  This is making the wild life there unsustainable.

Of the seven great ape species, only humans are not facing extinction.  The reasons for the decline are habitat loss, pathogens, and the rise in the bushmeat trade.  Besides humans infecting apes with deadly diseases, African apes and monkeys harbor pathogens that can get transmitted into human populations. The introduction of HIV into humans has been traced to the consumption of chimpanzee meat.

China is also involved in wild animal meat. There is high demand for exotic foods such as pangolin, a slow-moving anteater.

Exotic Pet Trade

Exotic pets are animals that have not been domesticated and often do not live well with humans, and yet the trade thrives, especially in the United States, the European Union, and Japan.  Examples are baboons, chimpanzees, rhesus monkeys, tigers, lions, wolves, black bears, three-toed sloths, foxes, raccoons, snakes, tarantulas, scorpions, turtles, lizards, birds and coral reef fish.

Wild animals spread disease to domestic animals and humans.  Salmonella infection from reptiles, Herpes B virus from macaque monkeys, etc are examples

Medicinal Plants

80% of the world’s people use traditional medicine to treat illnesses which require medicinal plants. China and India are the largest markets for medicinal plants.

For more than 3,000 years, the Chinese are using natural ingredients from plants, animals, and minerals to cure everything from the common cold to fevers, arthritis, and sexual dysfunction. These medications are sold throughout China and other Asian countries and to Asians around the world. Traditional Chinese medicines use ingredients from hundreds of species of plants and animals including endangered, threatened, or protected species.  

Most medicinal plants are gathered from the wild and are an important income source.  Wild Asian ginseng cost tens of thousands of dollars per kilogram.  To protect wild medicinal plants, regulations must be enforced and cultivation of medicinal herbs should become more widespread.

5. Climate change associated with global warming

Climate change has been an important factor for evolutionary processes and caused extinctions throughout Earth history. Human activities, such as fossil-fuel and forest burning results in a rapid change in Earth’s climate resulting in global warming. Amphibian species are undergoing extinction since global warming has allowed pathogens increase.

Global Warming

Since the end of the Pleistocene ice ages about 10,000 years ago, 4°C rise in global temperatures have occurred.

Each plant and animal species have an optimal climate condition to which they are adapted. Global warming alters the climatic conditions at regions which becomes intolerable for some species which may either move toward the poles or to higher elevations until it finds conditions where it can grow. Those species that cannot move or adapt to the new conditions will be extinct.

Increasing temperatures are melting glaciers and ice caps which destroys the habitat required for polar bears and northern seals. Melting ice results in rise of sea level which alter the coastal areas that habitat numerous species.

Temperature changes affect the breeding of some animal species, some populations decrease and some populations increase.

The sex of some aquatic animals, such as some turtles and fish, which are determined by water temperature and warmer water leads to all-female turtle hatchlings

Since most pathogens thrive in a warm environment, global warming increase both their survival and transmission rates.  Most disease vectors are now capable of completing their life cycle in a faster rate. About one-third of forests are affected by climate change due to increased risk of pathogen attack and problems associated with drought.

Global warming is occurring at a faster rate so that many plants and animals are not able to adapt before they suffer population decline or even extinction. The most detrimentally affected are the amphibian populations.

___________________________________________________________________________________

References

• Emerging Consequences of Biotechnology - Biodiversity Loss and IPR Issues, Krishna Dronamraju, World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
• Biosphere - Ecosystems and Biodiversity Loss, Dana Desonie, Chelsea House