Beneficial microbes in food industries

 

Beneficial microbes in food industries

Beneficial microbes play a vital role in the food industry, contributing to the production, preservation, safety, and enhancement of food products. These microorganisms are utilized in various processes, from fermentation to probiotics, and are essential in creating some of the world’s most popular foods and beverages.

Beneficial microbes are indispensable in the food industry, playing critical roles in fermentation, preservation, safety, flavor, and texture development. Their application enhances the quality and safety of food products and contributes to sustainability by reducing the need for chemical preservatives and processing aids.

1. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Fermentation

Fermentation is one of the oldest and most important processes in the food industry, where beneficial microbes convert sugars and other substrates into alcohol, acids, gases, or other desirable compounds. This process helps in preserving food and enhances its flavor, texture, and nutritional value.

1. Microbial Fermentations:

Lactic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus species.

Dairy Products: LAB are essential in the production of yogurt, cheese, kefir, and other fermented dairy products. They convert lactose into lactic acid, which gives these products their characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture.

Vegetable Fermentation: Sauerkraut, kimchi, and pickles are produced through lactic acid fermentation, where LAB convert sugars in vegetables into lactic acid, acting as a natural preservative.

Meat Products: Fermented sausages like salami rely on LAB to produce lactic acid, which lowers the pH and helps in preserving the meat while enhancing flavor.

In Homolactic fermentation glucose molecule is converted into two molecules of lactic acid and in Heterolactic fermentation, glucose molecule is converted into lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and ethanol. 

Alcoholic Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Bread making - In bread dough yeast ferment and produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, this causes leavening of the dough causing it to expand. 

Brewing: Yeasts ferment sugars in grains (like barley) to produce beer. The fermentation process generates alcohol and carbon dioxide, giving beer its alcohol content and carbonation.

Winemaking: Yeasts ferment sugars in grapes to produce wine. The type of yeast and fermentation conditions significantly influence the flavor and character of the wine.

Production of other alcoholic beverages: Yeasts are also used to produce alcoholic spirits like whiskey and vodka through fermentation, followed by distillation to concentrate the alcohol.

Acetic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Acetic acid bacteria (AAB), such as Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species.

Vinegar Production: AAB oxidize ethanol (produced by yeast fermentation) into acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste. This process is used to produce various types of vinegar, including apple cider vinegar and balsamic vinegar.

Kombucha: A fermented tea where AAB and yeasts work together to convert sugars into ethanol and acetic acid, resulting in a tangy, effervescent beverage.

Propionic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Propionibacterium species.

Cheese Production: Propionic acid bacteria are involved in the fermentation of Swiss cheese, where they produce propionic acid and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide forms the characteristic holes, or "eyes," in the cheese, while propionic acid contributes to its nutty flavor.

2. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Probiotics

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. They are often added to foods or dietary supplements to enhance gut health and overall well-being.

Microbes Involved:

Common probiotic bacteria include species of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, and Enterococcus.  Some yeasts, like Saccharomyces boulardii, are also used as probiotics.

Applications in Food Products:

Dairy Products: Yogurts, kefir, and some cheeses are often fortified with probiotic cultures. These products support gut health by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestines.

Functional Foods: Probiotics are added to various functional foods, including juices, cereals, and snack bars, to provide health benefits.

Dietary Supplements: Probiotics are available in capsule, tablet, and powder forms, often recommended for digestive health, immune support, and other benefits.

Probiotics help balance the gut microbiota, alleviate symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and reduce the incidence of diarrhea, especially after antibiotic use.  Regular consumption of probiotics can enhance the immune response and reduce the risk of infections.

3. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Food Preservation

Beneficial microbes are used in the preservation of food by producing compounds that inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens.

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) - These produce lactic acid and other organic acids that lower the pH of the food environment, creating unfavorable conditions for spoilage microbes and pathogens.  They are used in the production of Fermented Vegetables and Fermented Dairy Products where they help to prevent the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens and extend the shelf life of products.

Bacteriocins - Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides produced by certain bacteria that can kill or inhibit the growth of closely related or specific harmful bacteria.  Examples are Nisin produced by Lactococcus lactis, used in the preservation of dairy products, meats, and canned foods to inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens and Pediocin Produced by Pediococcus species and is used in meat products to inhibit Listeria and other harmful bacteria.

Fungi like Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium camemberti are used in Blue cheese and Camembert cheese production, respectively. These molds create unique flavors and contribute to the preservation of the cheese.   Aspergillus oryzae are used in the fermentation of soybeans to produce soy sauce and miso, which have extended shelf lives due to the antimicrobial properties of the fermentation by-products.

4. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Food Safety

Beneficial microbes are used to enhance food safety by outcompeting or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.

Beneficial microbes, particularly in fermented foods, can outcompete harmful pathogens for nutrients and space, reducing the likelihood of contamination.  In fermented sausages, LAB prevent the growth of pathogens like Salmonella and Listeria.

Certain beneficial microbes produce substances that directly inhibit or kill pathogens. Lactobacillus species in yogurt can inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by producing lactic acid and bacteriocins.  Probiotic strains like Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium bifidum can inhibit the adhesion of pathogens to the gut lining, reducing the risk of infections.

5. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Flavor and Texture Development

Beneficial microbes contribute significantly to the flavor, aroma, and texture of various food products, enhancing their sensory qualities.

Microbes produce various metabolites during fermentation that contribute to the complex flavors and aromas of food. For example, Yeasts produce ethanol and esters during beer and wine fermentation, which contribute to the fruity and floral aromas while LAB produce diacetyl, a compound that gives a buttery flavor to dairy products and certain types of cheese.

Microbial activity can influence the texture of food products, making them more appealing to consumers.  For example, In yogurt production, LAB ferment lactose into lactic acid, which causes milk proteins to coagulate, forming the thick texture characteristic of yogurt and In bread making, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments sugars in the dough, producing carbon dioxide that makes the dough rise and gives the bread its light, spongy texture.

Public Health: Microbiology in the Context of Public Health Policy

Public Health: Microbiology in the Context of Public Health Policy

Public health microbiology is the field that bridges microbiology and public health. It focuses on understanding the role of microorganisms in human health, disease prevention, and the development of public health policies.   Public health policy is a set of laws, regulations, and actions that are implemented to promote health and wellness in society. Public health policies can include formal legislation, community outreach, and other actions.  Effective public health policies can: Prevent the spread of disease, protect vulnerable populations, create environments that support healthy lifestyles, and ensure equitable access to medical resources. 

Public health microbiology is a vital field that informs public health policy, helping to protect populations from infectious diseases and promoting health on a global scale. The integration of microbiological insights into public health policies ensures that interventions are evidence-based, effective, and responsive to emerging threats.

Public health microbiology plays an increasingly important role in addressing complex challenges such as antimicrobial resistance, emerging infectious diseases, and the impact of environmental changes on human health.

Organizations such as the World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, and other governmental and non-governmental agencies play a large role in public health policy. These organizations perform research and implement education and health initiatives for a population—creating laws and policies that ensure the society has nutritious food to eat, clean water to drink, vaccines for the sick, and access to health care.

Some examples of public health initiatives in India include Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK), which provides free drugs, diagnostics, blood, diet, transport, and drop back home and Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK), which provides services for newborns.

Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by harmful agents (pathogens) that get into your body. The most common causes are viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. Infectious diseases usually spread from person to person, through contaminated food or water and through bug bites.

Infectious diseases can be viral, bacterial, parasitic or fungal infections

Viral infections – AIDS, Chickungunya, Rabies, Viral Hepatitis, Mumps, Covid 19, Nipah

Bacterial infections – Typhoid, Typhus fever, Cholera, Tuberculosis

Fungal infections – Candidiasis, Aspergillosis, Blastomycosis

Parasitic infections – Amoebiasis, Malaria, Toxoplasmosis

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or prion diseases – caused by faulty proteins that cause other proteins, usually in brain, damaged and cause disease – Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Even though infectious disease may spread to anyone, those who have a weakened immune are at an increased risk with transmissible diseases.

• Those with suppressed or compromised immune systems, such as those receiving cancer treatments, living with HIV or on certain medicines.
• Young children, pregnant people and adults over 60.
• Those who are unvaccinated against common infectious diseases.
• Healthcare workers.
• People traveling to areas endemic to malaria, dengue virus and Zika viruses.

Depending on the type of infection, there are many ways that infectious diseases can spread.

·From person to person when you cough or sneeze.

·From close contact with another person

·By sharing utensils or cups with other people.

·On surfaces like doorknobs, phones and countertops.

·Through bug (mosquito or tick) or animal bites.

·From contaminated or improperly prepared food or water.

·From working with contaminated soil or sand (like gardening).

·From mother to fetus.

·From blood transfusions, organ/tissue transplants or other medical procedures.

Epidemiology - This is the study of the complex relationships among hosts and infectious agents.   This is the study of how and why infectious diseases emerge and spread among different populations, and what strategies can prevent or contain the spread of disease at the population level.

The WHO defines infectious diseases as pandemics, epidemics or endemic diseases based on a disease's rate of spread.

Epidemic – This is a sudden and unexpected increase in the number of disease cases in a specific geographical area. Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio are examples.

Pandemic – This occurs when a disease’s growth is exponential, covers a wide area, affecting several countries and populations.  This is an epidemic that has spread to multiple countries or continents and affects many people. The World Health Organization (WHO) declares a pandemic when a disease is growing exponentially. Covid 19 is an example

Endemic - A disease outbreak is endemic when it is consistently present but is limited to a particular region. This refers to a disease that is constantly present in a specific region or population. For example, malaria in Kenya is considered endemic.

Public health Microbiology

Public health microbiology is an interdisciplinary field that includes many different specialties, such as: Clinical microbiology, Food microbiology, Water microbiology, and Environmental microbiology and impacts public health policies and disease control strategies in many ways. 

Identifying causes - Public health microbiology research identifies the exact causes of diseases, which can lead to specific strategies for prevention. 

Developing interventions - Public health microbiology research leads to the development of interventions like vaccines, water purification techniques, and drugs. 

Controlling the spread of disease - Public health microbiology research helps to identify targets for control strategies, such as proper hygiene, sanitary conditions, and vector control. 

Understanding the human-animal-environment interface - Public health microbiology research helps to understand the role of animals in the spread of disease, and how to apply that knowledge to diagnostic skills. 

Generating epidemic intelligence - Public health microbiology requires the work of laboratory scientists, epidemiologists, and clinicians to generate, analyze, and communicate epidemic intelligence. 

Role of Microbiology in Public Health policy

Environmental Microbiology and Public Health - Microbial contamination of natural resources can lead to outbreaks of waterborne or foodborne diseases.  Public health policies related to environmental health, such as water treatment standards, waste management, and air quality regulations are important to protect communities from microbial infections.

Epidemiology and Outbreak Investigation - Epidemiological investigations are done where the source, transmission routes, and risk factors of infectious diseases are studied. Laboratory confirmation of pathogens is essential for accurate diagnosis and understanding of disease dynamics.  During a disease outbreak, public health microbiologists work closely with epidemiologists to identify the causative agents, trace the outbreak's origin, and develop strategies to control its spread.

Infectious Disease Surveillance - Microbiologists play a key role in identifying and monitoring infectious diseases within populations through the detection, identification, and tracking of pathogens responsible for outbreaks and epidemics based on laboratory-based accurate and timely data.  Public health policies are often informed by microbial surveillance, which helps in identifying emerging diseases, monitoring the spread of infections, and assessing the effectiveness of control measures.

Vaccine Development and Immunization Programs - Understanding the genetic makeup and behavior of pathogens helps in designing effective vaccines.  Public health policies prioritize vaccination as a key preventive measure against infectious diseases. It has to be ensured that vaccines are safe, effective, and widely available and vaccines are the backbone of immunization programs that protect public health.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) - Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health threat where microorganisms evolve to resist antimicrobial agents, such as antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals. It is very important to detect, monitor and understand the mechanisms of resistance.  Public health policies are developed to address AMR by promoting the prudent use of antimicrobials and supporting research on new treatments/

 

Microbiological Techniques in Public Health

Diagnostic Microbiology involves the identification of pathogens through various techniques, such as culture, microscopy, molecular methods (e.g., PCR), and serology. Accurate diagnosis is essential for effective treatment and control of infectious diseases.  Public health policies often mandate the use of specific diagnostic tests for certain diseases, ensuring that accurate and timely information is available for disease control efforts.

Molecular epidemiology uses genetic techniques to track the spread of pathogens and understand their evolution. Techniques such as whole-genome sequencing, phylogenetic analysis, and genotyping help public health authorities identify the source of outbreaks, monitor the spread of antimicrobial resistance and develop targeted interventions.

Surveillance Systems such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS), rely on microbiological data to monitor the incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases.  These systems are critical for detecting emerging threats and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions. Public health policies often mandate the reporting of specific diseases to these surveillance systems.

Biostatistics and Data Analysis is essential for analyzing microbiological data and interpreting its implications for public health. Statistical methods are used to assess disease trends, evaluate interventions, and model potential outbreaks.  Public health policies are shaped by the insights gained from biostatistical analysis, ensuring that resources are allocated effectively and interventions are based on robust data.

There are several Challenges and Considerations in Public Health Microbiology such as Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), lack of Laboratory Capacity and Infrastructure in many parts of the world and Ethical and Social Considerations in the use of human and animal subjects in research, the equitable distribution of resources, etc

 

Bioethics: Ethical Issues in the Manipulation of Microbial Life

 

Bioethics: Ethical Issues in the Manipulation of Microbial Life

The manipulation of microbial life presents significant ethical challenges that require careful consideration and responsible action. Bioethics in microbial manipulation is important regarding assessing risks and benefits and it also involves considering broader questions about the relationship between humans and the natural world, the value of life, and the responsibilities of scientists and society.

Bioethics is the study of the ethical, legal, and social implications of biological research and applications. It addresses the moral questions regarding the genetic modification, use, and release of microorganisms in to environment. Ethical considerations are important in ensuring that technological advancements in biotechnology and genetic engineering are used responsibly and for the greater good.

The development of recombinant DNA technology in the 1970s allowed scientists to alter the genetic material of microorganisms.  The Asilomar Conference in 1975 addressed the ethical implications of genetic engineering.

With the advent of CRISPR-Cas9 and other gene-editing technologies, the potential for precise and extensive manipulation of microbial life has expanded and these advancements raise new ethical questions about the boundaries of scientific intervention, the potential for unintended consequences and the societal impacts.  The increasing use of genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs) in medicine, agriculture and industry has led to debates about the safety, morality, and regulation of such technologies.

There has been a growing concern on genetically modified organisms used as food. In 1999 the European Union prohibited the production of new genetically modified crops and in 2000, 130 countries agreed on a protocol that requires exporters to declare if the crops they are exporting contain genetically modified organisms.

Transgenic plants have raised a lot of controversial issues. It is alleged that transgenic plants may be able to pass their new gene to other plants in surrounding areas via pollination. If these transgenic plants were made resistant to herbicides, diseases or insects, the offspring of the transgenic and non transgenic plants may become super weeds that are very difficult to control.

Genetic engineering in plants has also been attributed to the loss of crop genetic diversity thus increasing the risk of famine.  It also claimed that transgenic plants can produce pollen which is toxic to butterflies. Genetic engineering is also used in the production of virus-tolerant crops. Recombination can occur between the plant-produced viral genes and closely related genes of incoming viruses which may lead to the creation of viruses that can infect a wider range of hosts or that may be more powerful than the parent viruses.

Animal right activists are concerned about the suffering which genetic engineering techniques inflict on animals. In many situations the transgenic animal does not pass on the desired gene to its offspring so repeated experiments are necessary in order to develop the desired line for breeding purposes, thus increasing the difficulty and suffering of the organism involved.

Fish which are genetically engineered can raise problems if they interbreed with fish that have not. Fish which have been genetically modified may compete with other fish for food, thus causing the extermination of certain species of fish.

The use of genetically engineered Bovine Somatotropin used to increase the yield of milk in dairy cows has raised many questions. It is found that Bovine Somatotropin increases a cow’s likelihood of developing mastitis and other infections of its udders.

The mapping of the human genome raised a lot of ethical questions. Many people question the right of others to examine someone else’s gene and to modify them, altering the manner from which it was created by GOD.   Through the process of genetic engineering, scientists extract stem cells from a human embryo approximately five days after conception, which can serve as replacement cells to treat Alzheimer's and other diseases. When the stem cells are extracted from the embryo, the embryo is destroyed. The embryo is considered to be a human life and when it is destroyed, this is considered to be murder by certain people.

Today around the world the regulatory agencies in many countries are trying to facilitate the use of DNA technology in various industries while at the same time trying to ensure its safety.

Key Ethical Issues in the Manipulation of Microbial Life

Biosafety Concerns: One of the primary ethical concerns is the safety of genetically modified microorganisms, particularly regarding their potential release into the environment. There is a risk that these organisms could interact with natural ecosystems in unpredictable ways, leading to ecological imbalances or the emergence of new pathogens.  Ensuring that genetically modified microorganisms are contained and do not escape into the environment is crucial. Ethical concerns arise when considering the potential for accidental release and the long-term effects of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

Impact on Natural Ecosystems: The introduction of genetically modified microorganisms could disrupt existing ecosystems and lead to a loss of biodiversity. For example, engineered microbes could outcompete natural species, leading to the decline or extinction of certain microorganisms, plants, or animals.  This results in the loss of Ecological Balance leading to the potential disruption of nutrient cycles, soil health, and the relationships between microorganisms and other living organisms.

Human Health and Safety: The manipulation of microorganisms, especially in the context of food production, raises concerns about unintended health effects. For example, the use of genetically modified bacteria in probiotics or food processing must be carefully evaluated to ensure they do not cause harm to human health.  The use of antibiotic resistance markers in genetically modified microorganisms can contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance, posing a significant public health risk.

Dual-Use Research of Concern (DURC): Dual-use research refers to scientific research that has the potential to be used for both beneficial and harmful purposes. In the context of microbial manipulation, this includes the possibility of creating harmful pathogens, either intentionally (bioterrorism) or accidentally, that could pose a threat to public health and security.

Intellectual Property and Access: The patenting of genetically modified microorganisms raises ethical questions about ownership, access, and the commercialization of life forms. While patents can incentivize innovation, they can also limit access to essential technologies resulting in the monopoly of inventions by developed countries.  Ethical considerations include ensuring the benefits of microbial manipulation, such as new medicines or agricultural technologies to be accessible to all, regardless of economic status or geographic location.

Environmental Ethics:  Some ethical frameworks argue that all forms of life, including microorganisms, have intrinsic value and deserve moral consideration. This perspective challenges the view that microorganisms can be freely manipulated for human benefit without considering their inherent worth.  Decisions made today about the manipulation of microbial life could have long-lasting impacts on the environment and human society.

Ethical Frameworks and Principles

Precautionary Principle: The precautionary principle advocates for caution in the face of uncertainty. When the potential risks of manipulating microbial life are unknown or not fully understood, this principle suggests to be on the side of caution to avoid unintended harm. This is particularly relevant in the context of releasing genetically modified microorganisms into the environment, where the long-term impacts may be difficult to predict.

Beneficence and Non-Maleficence: Beneficence emphasizes the importance of ensuring that the manipulation of microbial life produces positive outcomes, such as improved public health, environmental sustainability, or economic benefits.  Non-Maleficence is the principle of "do no harm." It underscores the need to avoid actions that could cause harm to humans, animals, or the environment.

Justice and Equity: Benefits and risks of microbial manipulation should be distributed fairly across society. This includes ensuring that vulnerable populations are not disproportionately affected by the risks and they should not be excluded from the benefits.  There should not be any potential for widening the gap between developed and developing countries in terms of access to biotechnology.

Respect for Autonomy: This involves acknowledging the rights of individuals and communities to make informed decisions about the use of biotechnology in their lives and environments. This principle is closely tied to informed consent and public engagement regarding the release of genetically modified microorganisms.

Regulatory and Policy Considerations

International Regulations: International organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations (UN) play a role in establishing guidelines and frameworks for the safe and ethical use of biotechnology.

National Regulations: Countries have developed regulatory frameworks to regulate the manipulation of microbial life. These regulations typically involve risk assessments, safety protocols, and approval processes for the use and release of genetically modified microorganisms.

Ethical Review Boards and Institutional Guidelines: Ethical review boards, such as Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) and Institutional Biosafety Committees (IBCs), play a critical role in evaluating the ethical implications of research involving microbial manipulation. These bodies are responsible for ensuring that research is conducted in accordance with ethical principles and safety standards.

Patenting life

Patents are exclusive government-granted right for an invention, either a product or process, which allows its owner to exclude others from making, using, or selling the patented technology for a limited period of time.  Patenting scientific advancements in the field of biotechnology is an extremely complicated process.  For over 200 years living organisms were excluded from patent laws; life forms were considered a ‘product of nature,’ not a human invention.  

The non-patentable status of living organisms changed with the landmark decision of the Supreme Court, USA, in Diamond v. Chakraborty in 1980. Ananda Chakrabarty’s invention of a new Pseudomonas bacterium genetically engineered to degrade crude oil was rejected by US Patent Office, but the Supreme Court decision went in favour of Chakrabarty in a landmark case, Diamond (USPTO commissioner) v Chakrabarty (inventor). Chakrabarty’s Pseudomonas bacterium was a manipulated version that contained four plasmids controlling the breakdown of hydrocarbons and thus was ‘a new bacterium with markedly different characteristics from any found in nature’. The Supreme Court stated that new microorganisms not found in nature were either ‘manufactured’ or ‘composition of matter’ and thus patentable. Thus, it was not a ‘product of nature’ and can be patentable.

Following Chakrabarty case, European Patent Office (EPO) and the Japanese Patent Office (JPO) also started granting patent protection for microorganisms in 1981. The Government of India permitted patenting of microorganisms in India under the Patents (Second Amendment) Bill, 2002 and the microorganisms and microbiological inventions can be patented in India provided the strain is new.

USPTO issued the first patent on transgenic non-human animal ‘Harvard Mouse’ developed by Philip Leder and Timothy Stewart. The ‘Harvard Mouse’ was created through a genetic engineering technique of microinjection. To the fertilized egg, a gene known to cause breast cancer was injected and then this egg was surgically implanted into the mother. The resulting transgenic mice were extremely prone to breast cancer.

There are many ethical issues related to patenting life, such as: 

• ·         Whether living material can be privately owned or if it should be considered a common good 
• ·         Whether modifying the gene structure of living beings is against nature 
• ·         Whether conferring rights over a part of the human body violates human dignity 
• ·         Whether certain types of objects should be made the object of commercial exploitation 
• ·         Whether patenting and modifying the gene structure of living beings could create environmental changes

Some arguments against patenting life are: 

• No one can take the rights of nature's creations 
• Life forms are creations of God and Nature 
• Life forms are not inventions and thus do not meet the criteria of patentability 

Since biotechnology has brought many benefits to society, such as inventing new medicines and eradicating diseases, some argue that the risks of patenting life can be controlled through proper regulatory systems. 

 

 

 

Impact of microorganisms on human, animal and plant health

 

Impact of microorganisms on human, animal and plant health

Microorganisms are ubiquitous and they have a huge influence on us and our environment. Microorganisms play a dual role in the health of humans, animals, and plants. Their impact on human, animal and plant health can be both beneficial and harmful, depending on the type of microorganism and the conditions of the host which they interact with. 

Beneficial Impacts on Human Health

Microbiota and Gut Health:

The human gut is associated with trillions of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, etc and is collectively termed as the gut microbiota.

These microorganisms play a crucial role in digestion, nutrient absorption, and the synthesis of essential vitamins like vitamin K and B vitamins.

They help in maintaining a healthy immune system by preventing the growth of harmful pathogens through competitive inhibition.

Immune System Modulation:

Microorganisms help in the development and regulation of the immune system.

Probiotics are "live microbial supplement which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance".  Probiotics can boost the immune system and are used in preventing and treating various gastrointestinal disorders.

Biotechnological Applications:

Microorganisms are used in the production of antibiotics, such as Penicillin derived from the fungus Penicillium.

Microorganisms are used in the development of vaccines, production of insulin, therapeutic proteins, enzymes, Bioactive Compounds which are used as medicine to treat life style diseases, cancer etc.

Harmful Impacts on Human Health

Infectious Diseases:

Pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa, are causative agents of a wide range of infectious diseases, such as common cold, gastrointestinal infections, tuberculosis, AIDS, COVID-19, etc.  Pathogenic microorganisms invade human tissues, multiply, and cause damage.

Over and misappropriate of antibiotics have led to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria which has made infections harder to treat.

Sometimes food is spoiled by the growth of microorganisms.  Microorganisms may cause Foodborne infections and intoxications.  Food infection or foodborne illness occurs when a person consumes food that contain harmful bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These microorganisms cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, etc and may be even led to death.  Examples are infection by Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter, Norovirus, Hepatitis A, Rotavirus. Food intoxication or food poisoning occurs when a person eats food that contain toxins produced by certain bacteria. The toxins produced by these bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium botulinum cause food intoxication.

Beneficial Impacts on Animal Health

Symbiotic Relationships:

Microorganisms form symbiotic relationships with animals. Ruminants like cows depend on their gut bacteria to help digest cellulose which is a major component of their diet.  In insects like termites, protozoa and bacteria in their gut help in the digestion of cellulose present in wood.

Animals also have a microbiome which plays a vital role in digestion, immune system function, and protecting against pathogenic microorganisms.  Probiotics are also used in veterinary medicine to improve gut health, enhance immunity, and prevent diseases in animals.

Harmful Impacts on Animal Health

Zoonotic Diseases:

Microorganisms cause infectious diseases in animals.  Some microorganisms that infect animals can be transmitted to humans also and such diseases are termed as zoonotic diseases. Examples are Salmonella from poultry and rabies virus from dogs.

Animals are susceptible to various diseases caused by microorganisms, such as Foot-and-Mouth Disease caused by virus, Bovine Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis, etc.  These diseases can cause severe economic losses in agriculture and animal populations.

In animals also, overuse of antibiotics in veterinary medicine has led to the development of resistant strains of bacteria, and these pose a challenge in treating infections in animals.

Beneficial Impacts on Plant Health

Nitrogen Fixation - Certain bacteria, such as Rhizobium, form symbiotic relationships with leguminous plants, fixing atmospheric nitrogen which is crucial for plant growth and soil fertility.  Some free-living bacteria like Azotobacter, Azospirillum, etc also contribute to nitrogen fixation in the soil.

Biocontrol Agents -Some microorganisms act as natural biocontrol agents, protecting plants from diseases caused by pathogens and insect pests. Trichoderma, Bacillus thuringiensis, Baculovirus, etc. 

Plant Growth Promotion - Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) and Mycorrhiza enhance plant growth through the production of plant hormones, solubilization of nutrients and enhancing root development.

Harmful Impacts on Plant Health

Numerous bacteria, fungi, viruses, and nematodes cause plant diseases, leading to reduced crop yields and quality. Examples are bacterial wilt caused by Xanthomonas or Psaeudomonas, Powdery mildew caused by fungi, potato blight caused by Phytophthora infestans, tobacco mosaic virus. Fungi, such as Aspergillus and Fusarium, produce mycotoxins that can contaminate crops like corn, peanuts, and wheat. These toxins are harmful to both humans and animals when ingested.

 

Application of microbes in pharmaceutical industries

 

Application of microbes in pharmaceutical industries

Microbes are used for the production of drugs, vaccines, enzymes, and various therapeutic agents in the pharmaceutical industry. They are invaluable tools in drug discovery, manufacturing, and development. The important products that manufactured by microorganism in pharmaceutical industry is described below.

1. Vaccine Production

Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against infectious diseases.  A vaccine contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microorganism, its toxins or its surface proteins.

Types of Vaccines:

Live Attenuated Vaccines - These vaccines use a weakened (attenuated) form of the microorganisms that can still grow but does not cause disease.  Examples: Measles, Mumps, and Rubella (MMR) Vaccine, Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV)

Inactivated (Killed) Vaccines - These vaccines contain microorganisms that have been killed or inactivated so they cannot reproduce.  Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV), Hepatitis A Vaccine

Subunit and Conjugate Vaccines - These vaccines use molecules like proteins or polysaccharides of the microorganisms to stimulate an immune response. Hepatitis B Vaccine - Contains the surface antigen of the hepatitis B virus, Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccine 

Toxoid Vaccines - These vaccines use inactivated toxins produced by bacteria to elicit immunity.  Examples - Diphtheria and Tetanus Vaccines - contain inactivated toxins (toxoids) of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Clostridium tetani, respectively.

2. Production of Antibiotics

Antibiotics are one of the most significant contributions of microbes to medicine. They inhibit the growth or kill bacteria, fungi, virus, etc.

Bacteria - Streptomycin from Streptomyces griseus, Tetracycline from Streptomyces rimosus, Erythromycin from Streptomyces erythreus, Bacitracin from Bacillus subtilis.

Fungi - Penicillin from Penicillium chrysogenum, Cephalosporins from Cephalosporium

3. Production of Therapeutic Enzymes

Therapeutic enzymes are proteins used to treat diseases by replacing deficient or absent enzymes in patients or by facilitating biochemical reactions in the body. Microbes are used to produce these enzymes on an industrial scale.

Streptokinase produced by Streptococcus and is used to dissolve blood clots in patients with myocardial infarction (heart attack) or deep vein thrombosis.

Asparaginase produced by Escherichia coli and Erwinia chrysanthemi used in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) to deplete asparagine, an amino acid necessary for cancer cell growth.

Cellulase produced by fungi like Trichoderma reesei used in the treatment of disorders like Gaucher’s disease to help in breaking down complex carbohydrates.

4. Probiotics

Probiotics are "live microbial feed supplement which beneficially affects the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance".  Probiotics are commonly consumed as part of fermented foods with specially added active live cultures, such as in yogurt or as dietary supplements. Probiotics are also delivered in fecal transplants, in which  stool from a healthy donor is delivered like a suppository to a patient.  Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and bifidobacteria are the most common types of microbes used as probiotics and certain yeasts and bacilli are also used.

Bacillus coagulans GBI-30, 6086 -   Improve abdominal pain and bloating in IBS patients.

Lactobacillus paracasei St11 - reduce incidence of H. pylori-caused gastritis and reduce inflammation

5. Biopharmaceuticals such as proteins, hormones, etc

Recombinant Proteins

Insulin: Human insulin is now produced using recombinant DNA technology from Escherichia coli or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

Human Growth Hormone (HGH) is produced using recombinant E. coli

Monoclonal Antibodies (mAbs) are produced in mammalian cell cultures for use in treating cancers, autoimmune diseases, and infectious diseases.

Gene Therapy Vectors - Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV) Vectors and Lentiviral Vectors are used in gene therapy to deliver therapeutic genes to patients

6. Production of Amino Acids and Vitamins

Microbes are used in the industrial production of essential amino acids and vitamins, which are used as dietary supplements or as ingredients in pharmaceutical formulations.

Amino Acids:

Glutamic Acid (Monosodium Glutamate - MSG) produced by Corynebacterium glutamicum is used as a flavor enhancer in food and in parenteral nutrition formulations.

Lysine  Produced by Corynebacterium glutamicum and Escherichia coli is used as a dietary supplement.

Methionine Produced by Escherichia coli is used as a supplement in pharmaceuticals and animal feed.

Vitamins:

Vitamin B12 Produced by Propionibacterium and Pseudomonas species is used in the treatment of vitamin B12 deficiency and in multivitamin formulations.

Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) Produced by Ashbya gossypii and Bacillus subtilis is used as a dietary supplement and in the fortification of foods.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Produced by Acetobacter species is used as an antioxidant and dietary supplement.

7. Biotransformation and Synthesis of Complex Molecules

Biotransformation involves the use of microbes to convert simple compounds into more complex and valuable products, often with higher specificity and efficiency than chemical methods.

Steroid Transformation to convert precursor steroids such as cortisone or prednisone into active steroid drugs by Fungi like Rhizopus species and bacteria like Corynebacterium species.

Microbes are used to produce enantiomerically pure compounds, which are critical in the development of safe and effective drugs. Example is the production of (S)-naproxen, an anti-inflammatory drug using microbes.

8. Production of Bioactive Compounds

Statins such as lovastatin and simvastatin, Produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species are used to lower cholesterol levels and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases.

Immunosuppressants such as rapamycin or tacrolimus produced by Streptomyces is used as an immunosuppressant during organ transplantation.

Anticancer Compounds such as doxorubicin and bleomycin from Streptomyces species are used in chemotherapy to treat various cancers.

Biotechnology in Microbiology: Genetic Modification of Microorganism

Biotechnology in Microbiology: Genetic Modification of Microorganisms

Biotechnology in microbiology involves using microorganisms to produce valuable products or to address environmental challenges. This involves the genetic modification of microorganisms whereby the genetic makeup of microbes is modified to enhance their metabolic capabilities or to produce desired substances. Genetically modified microorganisms have applications in medicine, agriculture, industry, environmental management, etc.

Recombinant DNA technology or gene cloning

The term gene cloning can be defined as the isolation and amplification of an individual gene sequence by insertion of that sequence into a bacterium where it can be replicated.  Cloning a fragment of DNA allows indefinite amounts to be produced from a single original molecule.  Recombinant DNA technology has important applications in gene mapping, detection of inherited diseases, cancer research, immunology, etc. 

Basic steps in gene cloning experiments are

3. The DNA (cloned DNA, insert DNA, target DNA, foreign DNA) from the donor organism is extracted and enzymatically cleaved.
4. This fragment of DNA is then inserted (joined) into a circular DNA molecule called vector (vehicle) to form a new recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule. 
5. This recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule is then transferred into a host cell.  This process is known as transformation.
6. Within the host cell the vector multiplies, producing numerous identical copies not only of itself but also of the gene that it carries. 
7. When the host cell divides, copies of the rDNA molecules are passed to the progeny and further replication takes place.
8. After a large number of cell division a clone or colony of identical host cell is produced.  This clone contains copies of rDNA molecules. 
9. These rDNA molecules is then screened and isolated.

The DNA segment to be cloned is called foreign, passenger or target DNA or DNA insert. Vectors or cloning vehicles are self-replicating DNA molecules and most commonly used vectors are bacterial plasmids, bacteriophages or DNA viruses. Recombinant DNAs are introduced into a suitable organism, usually a bacterium; this organism is called host, while the process by which the rDNA is introduced into the host is called transformation. 

Recombinant DNA is called DNA chimera because of their analogy with the Chimera of mythology – a creature with the head of a lion, body of a goat and tail of a serpent.

The construction of such composite or artificial recombinant molecules is termed as genetic engineering or gene manipulation because of the potential for creating novel genetic combinations.

The process has also been termed molecular cloning or gene cloning because a line of genetically identical organisms, all of which contain the composite molecule or r DNA, can be propagated and grown in bulk, hence amplifying the composite molecule and the gene product whose synthesis it directs.

DNA cloning procedure has 5 essential parts

1. Preparation of DNA sample
2. Cutting of DNA molecules
3. Joining of desired DNA to the vector (ligation)
4. Transformation or transfer of rDNA to bacterial cells
5. Screening and identification

Preparation of DNA sample

Total cell DNA is required as a source of material from which genes for cloning is obtained.  This may be DNA from a culture of bacteria, plants, animals, etc.  Steps involved are

1. A culture of bacteria is grown and then harvested
2. The cells are broken open to release their contents
3. This extract is treated to remove all components except the DNA
4. The resulting DNA solution is concentrated

 

Cutting of DNA molecules

For molecular cloning, both the source DNA that contains the target sequence and the cloning vector must be consistently cut into discrete and reproducible fragments.

Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that make site specific cuts in the DNA.  There are three types of restriction endonucleases, but relevant enzymes for gene cloning are type II. 

Eg. EcoRI, PvuII, AluI

Cloning vehicles or vectors

One of the most important elements in rDNA technology is the vector.  Vectors are the carrier DNA into which foreign DNA or genes of interest are inserted to make a recombinant DNA.  Vectors along with these foreign DNA are then introduced into appropriate host cell and are maintained for study or expression. 

There are different types of cloning vectors.  Important among them are plasmid vectors.  Others include bacteriophage, cosmid, viruses, yeast cloning vectors, etc.

Joining of desired DNA to the vector (ligation)

The final step in the construction of rDNA molecule is the joining together of the vector molecule and the DNA to be cloned.   This process is called as ligation and the enzyme that catalyses the reaction is called DNA ligase. 

DNA ligase seals single stranded nicks between adjacent nucleotides in a duplex DNA chain. The enzyme catalyses the formation of a phosphodiester bond between adjacent 3’OH and 5’P termini in DNA.

Transformation or transfer of rDNA to bacterial cells

Once a mixture of rDNA is obtained, it is allowed to be taken up by the suitable bacterial cells.  The event of entering the plasmid containing foreign DNA fragment into a bacterial cell is known as transformation.  Chemical transformation, electroporation, Microinjuction, etc are the commonly used methods. 

Screening and identification

The bacteria with the vector are grown in a culture. Then the cells are lysed and the cloned gene or gene product is harvested in an efficient manner.

Applications of Genetic Modification in Microorganisms

1. Medicine and Pharmaceuticals

•    Genetically modified microorganisms are used to produce therapeutic proteins like insulin, growth hormones, clotting factors, etc. For example, Escherichia coli and yeast are engineered to produce recombinant insulin for diabetes treatment.
•   Microorganisms are genetically modified to produce antigens or weakened strains to be used as vaccines. For example, genetically engineered yeast is used to produce hepatitis B vaccine.
•   Genetic modification is used to enhance the Antibiotic Production by modifying the metabolic pathways.
•   Gene Therapy is the approach where Viruses are used to carry therapeutic genes into human cells to treat genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis.

2. Agriculture

•     Plants could be Genetically modified to resist specific pests without harming beneficial insects or the environment. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin is engineered in plants to produce proteins toxic to insect larvae, Bt cotton, Bt Brinjal are examples
•   Genetic modification of nitrogen-fixing bacteria, such as Rhizobium species, can improve their efficiency.
•    Microorganisms are engineered to enhance plant growth by producing growth-promoting hormones or solubilizing essential nutrients like phosphorus.

3. Industrial Biotechnology

•     Genetically modified microorganisms are used to produce biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, from renewable resources.
•     Microorganisms are modified to produce improved levels of biodegradable plastics like polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), enzymes, aminoacids, vitamins, etc

4. Environmental Biotechnology

•    Genetically modified microorganisms are used to clean up environmental pollutants, such as oil spills, heavy metals, and toxic chemicals. Pseudomonas putida is a genetically engineered bacterium, also known as a "superbug", developed by Professor Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty.  This organism could be used to clean up oil spills. 
•   Genetically modified microorganisms are developed as biosensors to detect environmental pollutants like arsenic.

Human insulin is produced in Escherichia coli (E. coli) using recombinant DNA technology:

Steps involved 

1. Cloning synthetic genes for the A and B chains of human insulin separately into plasmid pBR322. 
2. The cloned genes are fused to an E. coli β-galactosidase gene. 
3. The insulin peptides are cleaved from the β-galactosidase. 
4. The insulin peptides are detected by radioimmunoassay and purified. 
5. The inclusion bodies of insulin precursors are solubilized and refolded to create active insulin. 

The process of producing insulin in E. coli involves:

• Producing insulin precursors (IPs) as inclusion bodies by using genetically modified E coli
• Solubilizing and refolding the insulin precursors to create fully functional polypeptides

(https://images.app.goo.gl/bjxRZVGqsUHCaus16)

Genentech was the first company which produced recombinant human insulin in E. coli in 1978. The successful production of human insulin in bacteria led to the approval of human insulin for treating diabetes in 1982.