Future of Microbiology: Innovations and upcoming research fields

Future of Microbiology: Innovations and upcoming research fields

This is an exciting time for microbiology. Microbes are the basis of the biosphere and are the ancestors of all living things and the support system for all other forms of life. At the same time it is true that certain microbes pose threat to human health and to the health of plants and animals.  Microbes claim a primary, fundamental role in life on earth. Microbiology research is changing rapidly. The field has been impacted by events that shape public perceptions of microbes, such as the emergence of globally significant diseases, threats of bioterrorism, increasing failure of formerly effective antibiotics and therapies to treat microbial diseases, and events that contaminate food on a large scale, technological advancements particularly in genomics, etc.   The future of microbiology is poised to be transformative and the emerging research and technological advancements are opening new avenues for addressing global challenges in health, agriculture, industry, and environmental sustainability.

1.  Microbiome Research

Human Microbiome - Our body are colonized by thousands of microbial species that exist as commensals, largely on mucosal tissues of the nose, mouth, GIT, and vagina.  10¹⁴ bacterial cells are found in the human body, 10-fold more cells than the 10¹³ mammalian cells comprising the human body itself.  They are responsible for many important properties that affect the metabolism of food and drugs, the renewal of gut epithelial cells, immune system development and general behavioral characteristics. Advances in microbiome research are leading to the development of personalized medicine approaches, where an individual’s microbiome profile is used to tailor treatments for conditions such as inflammatory bowel disease, obesity, and mental health disorders.  Probiotics and prebiotics are being designed to specifically modulate the gut microbiome to enhance health outcomes. Future innovations may include microbiome-based diagnostics and therapeutics.  The microbiome’s influence on the immune system is also a critical area of research. Modulating the gut microbiome is being explored as a way to enhance the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibitors and other cancer treatments.

Soil and Plant Microbiomes - By understanding the interactions between plants and their microbial communities, microbial inoculants that promote plant growth, enhance nutrient uptake and protect against pathogens are being developed.  Microbiome engineering is being used to restore soil health, increase crop yields, and reduce the need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Ocean Microbiome - Understanding the role of marine microbes in carbon cycling, climate regulation and marine ecosystems will lead to the discovery of novel marine microorganisms with potential applications in biotechnology, medicine, and environmental remediation.

2. Microbiology and Public Health and Combating Antimicrobial Resistance

Global Surveillance to combat Emerging Infectious Diseases -Advances in microbiology are enhancing global surveillance of emerging infectious diseases. Predictive modeling using microbial data is being used to anticipate the emergence of new pathogens and guide public health responses. 

Vaccine Development -Innovations in microbiology are driving the development of next-generation vaccines, including mRNA vaccines, vector-based vaccines, and peptide vaccines. Efforts are being done for the development of microbiome-based vaccines that can modulate the microbiome to enhance immune responses.

Combating Antimicrobial Resistance- Alternative Antimicrobial Strategies such as the use of phage therapy, use of antimicrobial peptides such as bacteriocins, development of CRISPR based antimicrobials, etc are being investigated.

Phage Therapy – Bacteriophages that specifically target and kill bacteria can be used as a potential alternative to antibiotics, especially against multidrug-resistant bacterial infections.  Advances in phage engineering may lead to the development of phages with enhanced specificity and efficacy, as well as phage cocktails that can target multiple bacterial strains.  Phage cocktails are better compared with monophage therapy because bacteria are unlikely to become resistant to multiple phages at once.

Antimicrobial Peptides- Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are small proteins with broad-spectrum activity against bacteria, fungi, and viruses. AMPs are being explored for use in treating skin infections, sepsis, and to prevent biofilm formation.

CRISPR-based Antimicrobials- CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a genetic engineering technique that allows researchers to modify the DNA of living organisms.  CRISPR technology is being adapted to create novel antimicrobials that can specifically target and eliminate antibiotic-resistant bacteria.  Since it has the advantage of being specific and precise, any risk to off-target effects such as beneficial microbiota could be minimised.

Use of Artificial Intelligence in Drug Discovery - Microbes are a rich source of natural products with antimicrobial properties. Advances in genomics and metabolomics are facilitating the discovery of new antibiotics from previously uncultivable or rare microorganisms. The development of new culturing techniques, such as iChip or isolation chip allows for the growth of previously unculturable bacteria.  The Isolation chip (or ichip) is a method of culturing bacteria. Using regular methods, 99% of bacterial species are not able to be cultured as they do not grow in conditions that could be achieved in a laboratory (this problem is termed as the "Great Plate Count Anomaly"). The ichip cultures bacterial species within its soil environment. AI and machine learning are being integrated into the drug discovery process to predict the antimicrobial activity of novel compounds and for the identification of resistance mechanisms and thereby for the development of new antibiotics.

3. Advances in Environmental Microbiology

Bioremediation - Microbial Degradation of Pollutants - Microorganisms are being harnessed to degrade environmental pollutants, such as oil spills, plastic waste, and toxic chemicals. Advances in microbial ecology and genetic engineering are enhancing the efficiency and specificity of bioremediation processes. 

Bioelectrochemical Systems - Bioelectrochemical systems, such as microbial fuel cells, utilize the metabolic activity of microorganisms to generate electricity while simultaneously degrading organic pollutants. These systems are beneficial for wastewater treatment and environmental monitoring.

Climate Change Mitigation - Microorganisms play a crucial role in carbon cycling and greenhouse gas regulation. Research is focused on leveraging microbial processes to mitigate climate change, such as enhancing microbial carbon sequestration in soils or reducing methane emissions from agriculture or by installing photobioreactors containing microalgae to mitigate global climate change, as they contribute to carbon dioxide (CO₂) sequestration, conversion of greenhouse gases into biomass production, enhancement of air quality, etc.  Microbial Carbon Sequestration also could be improved towards climate change mitigation efforts by promoting the growth of microbial communities that stabilize organic carbon in soil.

Biofertilizers and Biopesticides- Microbial biofertilizers and biopesticides help to enhance crop productivity, reduce the need for chemical inputs, and promote soil health.

Microbial Dark Matter - Microbial Dark Matter (MDM) denote the vast majority of microbes that are uncultured in laboratories and are therefore unknown to scientists.  Advances in metagenomics, single-cell genomics, and novel culturing techniques are enabling the exploration of these microorganisms and we expect that these techniques reveal new insights into microbial ecology and potential applications in biotechnology and medicine.  Extremophiles are the microorganisms that thrive in extreme environments, are of particular interest for their potential applications in biotechnology and research in astrobiology is exploring the potential for microbial life in extreme environments on other planets, such as Mars.  Astro microbiology, or exo microbiology, is the study of microorganisms in outer space. It incorporates both microbiology and astrobiology.

4. Genetic Engineering and CRISPR-Cas Technology

CRISPR-Cas9 is a genome editing technology that allows to alter an organism's DNA.  CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, and Cas stands for CRISPR-Associated Protein 9. This was adapted from a natural defense system in bacteria that protects them from viruses. CRISPR-Cas9 can Disrupt a targeted gene, insert a new sequence at a desired location, Correct errors in the genome, Turn genes on or off, etc.  CRISPR-Cas9 has many applications in Biomedical research, Gene therapy, genetic engineering, etc.

This technology is being used to create microorganisms with enhanced capabilities such as production of pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals, biofuels, etc and for bioremediation, etc.  Microbes engineered with CRISPR technology are also being developed as biosensors to detect environmental contaminants, pathogens, or toxins for monitoring water quality, soil health, and disease outbreaks.

Metabolic Engineering for customizing Metabolic Pathways- Metabolic engineering involves the modification of microbial metabolic pathways to optimize the production of desired compounds. Advances in omics technologies (genomics, proteomics, metabolomics) are being used to enhance the yield of biofuels, bioplastics, and pharmaceuticals.

 

References

Kumar R, Sood U, Kaur J, Anand S, Gupta V, Patil KS, Lal R, The rising dominance of microbiology: what to expect in the next 15 years?, Microbial Biotechnology, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1111/1751-7915.13953

Microbiology in the 21st Century: Where Are We and Where Are We Going? Report based on a colloquium sponsored by the American Academy of Microbiology held September 5–7, 2003, in Charleston, South Carolina, American Society for Microbiology; 2004.

 

Microorganisms in Biowarfare: Historical and current perspectives

 

Microorganisms in Biowarfare: Historical and current perspectives

Biowarfare refers to the intentional use of biological agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses, fungi, and toxins) as weapons in war scenarios. Biowarfare agents can be deadlier than other conventional weapon systems as even minute quantities can cause mass casualties and/or fatalities depending on the agent used.  This practice involves the deliberate use of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi) or toxins produced by organisms to cause disease and death in humans, animals, or plants and this is almost as old as humanity itself. Since pre-historic and ancient Greek and Roman times there have been reported examples such as the use of poisoned darts or contaminating water springs and wells with corpses or cadavers.

Historical Perspectives on Microorganisms in Biowarfare

One of the earliest recorded instances of biological warfare was by the Hittites (1500-1200 BCE), who sent diseased animals into enemy territories, possibly causing tularemia outbreaks. The Scythians (4th century BCE) were known to dip their arrows in decomposing bodies or in blood mixed with manure to cause infections in their enemies.

During the Black Death (1346), Mongol forces catapulted the bodies of plague victims over the walls of the besieged city of Kaffa (now in Ukraine) in an attempt to spread the disease among the inhabitants.  Also in various medieval wars, it was common to contaminate water sources with dead animals or human corpses to spread diseases among the enemy forces.

British forces under Sir Jeffrey Amherst reportedly gave blankets contaminated with smallpox to Native Americans during the French and Indian War (1754-1763), leading to a smallpox outbreak among indigenous populations.

During World War I (1914-1918), Germany was accused of using anthrax and glanders (a bacterial disease) to infect livestock and horses.

During World War II, the Japanese military conducted extensive biological warfare research under Unit 731. They experimented with various pathogens, including plague, cholera, anthrax, and typhus, on prisoners of war and civilians in China.  Japanese forces also released plague-infected fleas over Chinese cities, causing outbreaks and significant civilian casualties.

Both the Allied and Axis powers explored research and development on biological weapons during World War II. The United States and the United Kingdom conducted research on anthrax, botulinum toxin, and other agents, though they did not use them in combat.

The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union saw an escalation in biological weapons research. Both superpowers developed extensive biowarfare programs, stockpiling agents like anthrax, tularemia, Q fever, and smallpox.  The Soviet Union’s program was codenamed as “Biopreparat,” and involved the development of genetically modified pathogens that could resist antibiotics and vaccines.

Use of microorganism in biowarfare during the past millennia.

Date	Examples of the use of microorganism in Biowarfare
Pre-historic times	Melanesian tribesman used arrowheads contaminated with tetanus
14th century BC	The Hittite army send rams infected with tularemia to their enemies
6th century BC (Trojan War)	Scythian archers infected their arrows by dipping them into decomposing cadavers and human blood containing C. perfringens and C. tetani
1155	Emperor Barbarossa poisons water wells with human bodies in Tortona, Italy
1346	Tartar (Mongol) army catapulted bodies of plague victims over the city walls of Caffa
1495	Spanish sold wine mixed with blood of leprosy patients to their French opponents in Naples (Italy)
1500	Pizarro offered variola-contaminated clothing to South America native communities
1650	Polish fire saliva from rabid dogs towards their enemies
1676: Antoine van Leeuwenhoek (Father of Microbiology) identified microorganisms.
1710	Russian army catapulted bodies of plague victims into Swedish cities
1763 (French-Indian War)	British offered smallpox-contaminated blankets to Native Americans
1797	The Napoleonic armies floods the plains around Mantua (Italy) to enhance the spread of malaria
1861–1863 (American Civil War)	Confederates troops sold yellow fever and smallpox-infected clothing to Union troops
	Confederates troops contaminate water supplies for the Union forces with animal corpses
End of the 19th century: development of the germ theory of disease and foundation of microbiology by Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) and Robert Koch (1843–1910)
1914–1918 (World War I)	German troops sold horses and mules infected with glanders and anthrax to the Allies German troops attempted to spread cholera in Italy and plague in St. Petersburg
1925: The “Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use in War of Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare”, also referred as the “Geneva Protocol”, was signed (38 signatories and 140 parties)
1939–1945 (World War II)	Japanese army poisoned water wells in Chinese villages to study cholera and typhus outbreaks
	Japanese inoculated prisoners of war with agents causing gas gangrene, anthrax, meningitis, cholera, dysentery and plague
1972: The “Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction”, also referred as the “Biological Weapons Convention” (BWC) was signed (actually has 182 parties)
2001: The US Patriot Act is signed in, providing Federal and national law enforcement officials with enhanced counter-terrorism capacities.

During the ancient times, in many of the cases (e.g.: plague during the siege of Caffa, smallpox during the French-Indian War, etc) it is difficult to distinguish if the disease spread was due to the intentional release of the microorganisms or if it was due to the limited hygienic conditions during the period or due to the contact between populations with different immunities.  For both microbiologists and historians it is challenging to distinguish between natural epidemics and deliberate biological attacks mainly due to the lack of reliable scientific data regarding an alleged bioterrorism attack, especially before the advent of modern microbiology, the secretive nature and polemical or Controversial conditions regarding such biological attacks, etc.

Current Perspectives on Microorganisms in Biowarfare

International Law and Biological Weapons Convention

Geneva Protocol (1925) - The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the use of chemical and biological weapons in warfare. However, it did not address the development or stockpiling of such weapons, nor did it have enforcement mechanisms, making it less effective until later treaties supplemented it.

Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) - The 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) is the primary international treaty that prohibits the development, production, and stockpiling of biological and toxin weapons. This was the first multilateral disarmament treaty banning an entire category of weapons of mass destruction (WMD).

It was formally known as “The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction”.  The Convention was negotiated by the Conference of the Committee on Disarmament in Geneva, Switzerland. It opened for signature on 10 April 1972 and entered into force on 26 March 1975. The BWC supplements the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which had prohibited only the use of biological weapons.  The BWC has been signed and ratified by 187 countries as of 2024. The development, production and stockpiling of biological weapons effectively ceased with the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC)

Today, biological warfare is feared not mainly nations, but more from terrorist groups or “lone wolves.” Many believe that terrorists would be incapable of carrying out an effective, large-scale biological attack. For instance, in 1984, the Rajneesh cult gave food poisoning to about 750 citizens of a small Oregon town for political purposes by adding Salmonella to salad bars. Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese cult, in 1995, experimented with biological weapons. The 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States, where letters containing anthrax spores were sent to media outlets and government offices, killed about 5 people.  

(https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7150198/)

Some believe that a large-scale bioterrorist attack will occur in the not-too-distant future, but others say bioterrorism is an ineffective tactic. Attack methods include contamination of food and water supplies (A), bombs (B), using the mail (C), contamination of water (F), spraying aerosolized agents (E, G), direct injection (D), or the infiltration of “suicide infectees” (H).

Advances in genetic engineering and synthetic biology have raised new concerns about the potential creation of novel or enhanced biological weapons. Techniques like CRISPR could theoretically be used to modify pathogens to increase their virulence, resistance to treatment, or ability to evade detection.

While most nations publicly adhere to the BWC, there are concerns that some countries may be maintaining or developing biological weapons capabilities in secret.

Countermeasures and Global Preparedness against Biological warfare

Biological warfare has a far greater psychological impact than direct health impact and protective measures such as massive vaccinations against all possible against biological attacks are costly and inconvenient.

Biosurveillance systems, rapid diagnostic tests, and genomic sequencing are crucial tools in identifying and responding to potential biological attacks.  International organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) play vital roles in monitoring and responding to outbreaks, whether natural or man-made.

Developing vaccines and stockpiling antiviral drugs, antibiotics, and other medical countermeasures and therapeutics against potential biowarfare agents is key aspect of national preparedness strategies.

Effective response to biowarfare and bioterrorism requires international cooperation. The Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) is one example of an initiative aimed at building global capacity to prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease threats.

Classification of potential bioterrorism agents capable to cause diseases in humans, according to the United States Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Strategic Planning Group

Category	Definition	Agent and Disease
A	High-priority agents Easy to disseminate or transmitted (person to person) High mortality rates Potential for major public health impact Cause public panic and social disruption	Bacillus anthracis (anthrax) Clostridium botulinum (botulism, toxin) Francisella tularensis (tularemia) Yersinia pestis (plague) Variola major (smallpox) Filoviruses (Ebola, Marburg) Arenaviruses (Lassa, Machupo) Bunyaviruses (Congo-Crimean, Rift Valley) Flaviviruses (Dengue)
B	Second highest priority agents Moderately easy to disseminate Moderate morbidity rates and low mortality rates	Brucella spp. (brucellosis) Clostridium perfringens (gangrene and food poisoning, Epsilon toxin) Salmonella spp. (salmonellosis) Escherichia coli O157:H7 (Hemorrhagic colitis) Shigella dysenteriae (dysentery) Burkholderia mallei (glanders) Burkholderia pseudomallei (melioidosis) Chlamydia psittaci (psittacosis) Coxiella burnetii (Q fever) Vibrio cholerae (cholera) Cryptosporidium parvum (cryptosporidiosis) Staphylococcus aureus (food poisoning, Staphylococcal enterotoxin B) Rickettsia prowazekii (typhus fever) Alphaviruses (encephalitis) Caliciviruses (gastroenteritis)
C	Third highest priority agents Includes emerging pathogens that could be engineered for mass dissemination Availability and Easy to produce and disseminate High morbidity and mortality rates Potential for major public health impact	Multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tuberculosis) Nipah virus (encephalitis) Hantavirus (hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome - HFRS, cardiopulmonary syndrome - HCPS) Chikungunya virus (arthritis and rash) SARS-associated coronavirus (respiratory syndrome) Highly pathogenic strains Influenza Virus (respiratory syndrome) Yellow fever

(https://emergency.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist-category.asp.)

 

References

·  Oliveira M, Mason-Buck G, Ballard D, Branicki W, Amorim A, Biowarfare, bioterrorism and biocrime: A historical overview on microbial harmful applications, Forensic Sci Int. 2020,  doi: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2020.110366

·   Riedel S, Biological warfare and bioterrorism: a historical review,  Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent), 2004,  doi: 10.1080/08998280.2004.11928002

·   Clark DP, Pazdernik NJ, Biological Warfare: Infectious Disease and Bioterrorism,  Biotechnology, 2015, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-385015-7.00022-3

Beneficial microbes in food industries

 

Beneficial microbes in food industries

Beneficial microbes play a vital role in the food industry, contributing to the production, preservation, safety, and enhancement of food products. These microorganisms are utilized in various processes, from fermentation to probiotics, and are essential in creating some of the world’s most popular foods and beverages.

Beneficial microbes are indispensable in the food industry, playing critical roles in fermentation, preservation, safety, flavor, and texture development. Their application enhances the quality and safety of food products and contributes to sustainability by reducing the need for chemical preservatives and processing aids.

1. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Fermentation

Fermentation is one of the oldest and most important processes in the food industry, where beneficial microbes convert sugars and other substrates into alcohol, acids, gases, or other desirable compounds. This process helps in preserving food and enhances its flavor, texture, and nutritional value.

1. Microbial Fermentations:

Lactic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) such as Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Streptococcus species.

Dairy Products: LAB are essential in the production of yogurt, cheese, kefir, and other fermented dairy products. They convert lactose into lactic acid, which gives these products their characteristic tangy flavor and thick texture.

Vegetable Fermentation: Sauerkraut, kimchi, and pickles are produced through lactic acid fermentation, where LAB convert sugars in vegetables into lactic acid, acting as a natural preservative.

Meat Products: Fermented sausages like salami rely on LAB to produce lactic acid, which lowers the pH and helps in preserving the meat while enhancing flavor.

In Homolactic fermentation glucose molecule is converted into two molecules of lactic acid and in Heterolactic fermentation, glucose molecule is converted into lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and ethanol. 

Alcoholic Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Yeasts, particularly Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Bread making - In bread dough yeast ferment and produce alcohol and carbon dioxide, this causes leavening of the dough causing it to expand. 

Brewing: Yeasts ferment sugars in grains (like barley) to produce beer. The fermentation process generates alcohol and carbon dioxide, giving beer its alcohol content and carbonation.

Winemaking: Yeasts ferment sugars in grapes to produce wine. The type of yeast and fermentation conditions significantly influence the flavor and character of the wine.

Production of other alcoholic beverages: Yeasts are also used to produce alcoholic spirits like whiskey and vodka through fermentation, followed by distillation to concentrate the alcohol.

Acetic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Acetic acid bacteria (AAB), such as Acetobacter and Gluconobacter species.

Vinegar Production: AAB oxidize ethanol (produced by yeast fermentation) into acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste. This process is used to produce various types of vinegar, including apple cider vinegar and balsamic vinegar.

Kombucha: A fermented tea where AAB and yeasts work together to convert sugars into ethanol and acetic acid, resulting in a tangy, effervescent beverage.

Propionic Acid Fermentation:

Microbes Involved: Propionibacterium species.

Cheese Production: Propionic acid bacteria are involved in the fermentation of Swiss cheese, where they produce propionic acid and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide forms the characteristic holes, or "eyes," in the cheese, while propionic acid contributes to its nutty flavor.

2. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Probiotics

Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits when consumed in adequate amounts. They are often added to foods or dietary supplements to enhance gut health and overall well-being.

Microbes Involved:

Common probiotic bacteria include species of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Streptococcus, and Enterococcus.  Some yeasts, like Saccharomyces boulardii, are also used as probiotics.

Applications in Food Products:

Dairy Products: Yogurts, kefir, and some cheeses are often fortified with probiotic cultures. These products support gut health by promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria in the intestines.

Functional Foods: Probiotics are added to various functional foods, including juices, cereals, and snack bars, to provide health benefits.

Dietary Supplements: Probiotics are available in capsule, tablet, and powder forms, often recommended for digestive health, immune support, and other benefits.

Probiotics help balance the gut microbiota, alleviate symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), and reduce the incidence of diarrhea, especially after antibiotic use.  Regular consumption of probiotics can enhance the immune response and reduce the risk of infections.

3. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Food Preservation

Beneficial microbes are used in the preservation of food by producing compounds that inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens.

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) - These produce lactic acid and other organic acids that lower the pH of the food environment, creating unfavorable conditions for spoilage microbes and pathogens.  They are used in the production of Fermented Vegetables and Fermented Dairy Products where they help to prevent the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens and extend the shelf life of products.

Bacteriocins - Bacteriocins are antimicrobial peptides produced by certain bacteria that can kill or inhibit the growth of closely related or specific harmful bacteria.  Examples are Nisin produced by Lactococcus lactis, used in the preservation of dairy products, meats, and canned foods to inhibit the growth of spoilage organisms and pathogens and Pediocin Produced by Pediococcus species and is used in meat products to inhibit Listeria and other harmful bacteria.

Fungi like Penicillium roqueforti and Penicillium camemberti are used in Blue cheese and Camembert cheese production, respectively. These molds create unique flavors and contribute to the preservation of the cheese.   Aspergillus oryzae are used in the fermentation of soybeans to produce soy sauce and miso, which have extended shelf lives due to the antimicrobial properties of the fermentation by-products.

4. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Food Safety

Beneficial microbes are used to enhance food safety by outcompeting or inhibiting the growth of pathogenic microorganisms.

Beneficial microbes, particularly in fermented foods, can outcompete harmful pathogens for nutrients and space, reducing the likelihood of contamination.  In fermented sausages, LAB prevent the growth of pathogens like Salmonella and Listeria.

Certain beneficial microbes produce substances that directly inhibit or kill pathogens. Lactobacillus species in yogurt can inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus by producing lactic acid and bacteriocins.  Probiotic strains like Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Bifidobacterium bifidum can inhibit the adhesion of pathogens to the gut lining, reducing the risk of infections.

5. Beneficial microbes in food industries - Flavor and Texture Development

Beneficial microbes contribute significantly to the flavor, aroma, and texture of various food products, enhancing their sensory qualities.

Microbes produce various metabolites during fermentation that contribute to the complex flavors and aromas of food. For example, Yeasts produce ethanol and esters during beer and wine fermentation, which contribute to the fruity and floral aromas while LAB produce diacetyl, a compound that gives a buttery flavor to dairy products and certain types of cheese.

Microbial activity can influence the texture of food products, making them more appealing to consumers.  For example, In yogurt production, LAB ferment lactose into lactic acid, which causes milk proteins to coagulate, forming the thick texture characteristic of yogurt and In bread making, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments sugars in the dough, producing carbon dioxide that makes the dough rise and gives the bread its light, spongy texture.

Public Health: Microbiology in the Context of Public Health Policy

Public Health: Microbiology in the Context of Public Health Policy

Public health microbiology is the field that bridges microbiology and public health. It focuses on understanding the role of microorganisms in human health, disease prevention, and the development of public health policies.   Public health policy is a set of laws, regulations, and actions that are implemented to promote health and wellness in society. Public health policies can include formal legislation, community outreach, and other actions.  Effective public health policies can: Prevent the spread of disease, protect vulnerable populations, create environments that support healthy lifestyles, and ensure equitable access to medical resources. 

Public health microbiology is a vital field that informs public health policy, helping to protect populations from infectious diseases and promoting health on a global scale. The integration of microbiological insights into public health policies ensures that interventions are evidence-based, effective, and responsive to emerging threats.

Public health microbiology plays an increasingly important role in addressing complex challenges such as antimicrobial resistance, emerging infectious diseases, and the impact of environmental changes on human health.

Organizations such as the World Health Organization, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Food and Drug Administration, and other governmental and non-governmental agencies play a large role in public health policy. These organizations perform research and implement education and health initiatives for a population—creating laws and policies that ensure the society has nutritious food to eat, clean water to drink, vaccines for the sick, and access to health care.

Some examples of public health initiatives in India include Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK), which provides free drugs, diagnostics, blood, diet, transport, and drop back home and Rashtriya Bal Swasthya Karyakram (RBSK), which provides services for newborns.

Infectious diseases are illnesses caused by harmful agents (pathogens) that get into your body. The most common causes are viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites. Infectious diseases usually spread from person to person, through contaminated food or water and through bug bites.

Infectious diseases can be viral, bacterial, parasitic or fungal infections

Viral infections – AIDS, Chickungunya, Rabies, Viral Hepatitis, Mumps, Covid 19, Nipah

Bacterial infections – Typhoid, Typhus fever, Cholera, Tuberculosis

Fungal infections – Candidiasis, Aspergillosis, Blastomycosis

Parasitic infections – Amoebiasis, Malaria, Toxoplasmosis

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or prion diseases – caused by faulty proteins that cause other proteins, usually in brain, damaged and cause disease – Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

Even though infectious disease may spread to anyone, those who have a weakened immune are at an increased risk with transmissible diseases.

• Those with suppressed or compromised immune systems, such as those receiving cancer treatments, living with HIV or on certain medicines.
• Young children, pregnant people and adults over 60.
• Those who are unvaccinated against common infectious diseases.
• Healthcare workers.
• People traveling to areas endemic to malaria, dengue virus and Zika viruses.

Depending on the type of infection, there are many ways that infectious diseases can spread.

·From person to person when you cough or sneeze.

·From close contact with another person

·By sharing utensils or cups with other people.

·On surfaces like doorknobs, phones and countertops.

·Through bug (mosquito or tick) or animal bites.

·From contaminated or improperly prepared food or water.

·From working with contaminated soil or sand (like gardening).

·From mother to fetus.

·From blood transfusions, organ/tissue transplants or other medical procedures.

Epidemiology - This is the study of the complex relationships among hosts and infectious agents.   This is the study of how and why infectious diseases emerge and spread among different populations, and what strategies can prevent or contain the spread of disease at the population level.

The WHO defines infectious diseases as pandemics, epidemics or endemic diseases based on a disease's rate of spread.

Epidemic – This is a sudden and unexpected increase in the number of disease cases in a specific geographical area. Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio are examples.

Pandemic – This occurs when a disease’s growth is exponential, covers a wide area, affecting several countries and populations.  This is an epidemic that has spread to multiple countries or continents and affects many people. The World Health Organization (WHO) declares a pandemic when a disease is growing exponentially. Covid 19 is an example

Endemic - A disease outbreak is endemic when it is consistently present but is limited to a particular region. This refers to a disease that is constantly present in a specific region or population. For example, malaria in Kenya is considered endemic.

Public health Microbiology

Public health microbiology is an interdisciplinary field that includes many different specialties, such as: Clinical microbiology, Food microbiology, Water microbiology, and Environmental microbiology and impacts public health policies and disease control strategies in many ways. 

Identifying causes - Public health microbiology research identifies the exact causes of diseases, which can lead to specific strategies for prevention. 

Developing interventions - Public health microbiology research leads to the development of interventions like vaccines, water purification techniques, and drugs. 

Controlling the spread of disease - Public health microbiology research helps to identify targets for control strategies, such as proper hygiene, sanitary conditions, and vector control. 

Understanding the human-animal-environment interface - Public health microbiology research helps to understand the role of animals in the spread of disease, and how to apply that knowledge to diagnostic skills. 

Generating epidemic intelligence - Public health microbiology requires the work of laboratory scientists, epidemiologists, and clinicians to generate, analyze, and communicate epidemic intelligence. 

Role of Microbiology in Public Health policy

Environmental Microbiology and Public Health - Microbial contamination of natural resources can lead to outbreaks of waterborne or foodborne diseases.  Public health policies related to environmental health, such as water treatment standards, waste management, and air quality regulations are important to protect communities from microbial infections.

Epidemiology and Outbreak Investigation - Epidemiological investigations are done where the source, transmission routes, and risk factors of infectious diseases are studied. Laboratory confirmation of pathogens is essential for accurate diagnosis and understanding of disease dynamics.  During a disease outbreak, public health microbiologists work closely with epidemiologists to identify the causative agents, trace the outbreak's origin, and develop strategies to control its spread.

Infectious Disease Surveillance - Microbiologists play a key role in identifying and monitoring infectious diseases within populations through the detection, identification, and tracking of pathogens responsible for outbreaks and epidemics based on laboratory-based accurate and timely data.  Public health policies are often informed by microbial surveillance, which helps in identifying emerging diseases, monitoring the spread of infections, and assessing the effectiveness of control measures.

Vaccine Development and Immunization Programs - Understanding the genetic makeup and behavior of pathogens helps in designing effective vaccines.  Public health policies prioritize vaccination as a key preventive measure against infectious diseases. It has to be ensured that vaccines are safe, effective, and widely available and vaccines are the backbone of immunization programs that protect public health.

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) - Antimicrobial resistance is a growing public health threat where microorganisms evolve to resist antimicrobial agents, such as antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals. It is very important to detect, monitor and understand the mechanisms of resistance.  Public health policies are developed to address AMR by promoting the prudent use of antimicrobials and supporting research on new treatments/

 

Microbiological Techniques in Public Health

Diagnostic Microbiology involves the identification of pathogens through various techniques, such as culture, microscopy, molecular methods (e.g., PCR), and serology. Accurate diagnosis is essential for effective treatment and control of infectious diseases.  Public health policies often mandate the use of specific diagnostic tests for certain diseases, ensuring that accurate and timely information is available for disease control efforts.

Molecular epidemiology uses genetic techniques to track the spread of pathogens and understand their evolution. Techniques such as whole-genome sequencing, phylogenetic analysis, and genotyping help public health authorities identify the source of outbreaks, monitor the spread of antimicrobial resistance and develop targeted interventions.

Surveillance Systems such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's (CDC) National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS), rely on microbiological data to monitor the incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases.  These systems are critical for detecting emerging threats and evaluating the effectiveness of interventions. Public health policies often mandate the reporting of specific diseases to these surveillance systems.

Biostatistics and Data Analysis is essential for analyzing microbiological data and interpreting its implications for public health. Statistical methods are used to assess disease trends, evaluate interventions, and model potential outbreaks.  Public health policies are shaped by the insights gained from biostatistical analysis, ensuring that resources are allocated effectively and interventions are based on robust data.

There are several Challenges and Considerations in Public Health Microbiology such as Emerging and Re-Emerging Infectious Diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR), lack of Laboratory Capacity and Infrastructure in many parts of the world and Ethical and Social Considerations in the use of human and animal subjects in research, the equitable distribution of resources, etc