Cellular Structures of Microorganisms: Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Cellular Structures of Microorganisms: Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Microorganisms can be broadly classified into two categories based on their cellular structures: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Overview of Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotes: These are the simplest and most ancient forms of life, consisting of unicellular organisms that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotes include eubacteria and archaeabacteria.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells are more complex, featuring a true nucleus enclosed by a nuclear membrane, along with various membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic microorganisms include fungi, protozoa, and algae, which can be unicellular or multicellular.

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Differences Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

1. Cell Size
• Prokaryotes: Generally smaller, ranging from 0.1 to 5 micrometers in diameter. The small size allows for rapid nutrient uptake and distribution within the cell.
• Eukaryotes: Typically larger, ranging from 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter. The larger size is associated with the presence of more complex internal structures and compartmentalization.
2. Cell Wall
• Prokaryotes: Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall that provides structural support and protection. In bacteria, the cell wall is primarily composed of peptidoglycan (polymer of sugars and amino acids). Archaea have cell walls made of pseudopeptidoglycan or other unique polymers, differing from bacterial cell walls.
• Eukaryotes: In eukaryotic microorganisms, the cell wall is present in some groups but not in others. For example, fungi have cell walls made of chitin, while algae have cell walls composed of cellulose. Protozoa typically lack a cell wall, relying on other structures for shape and protection.
3. Nucleus
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus, their genetic material is located in a region called the nucleoid, which is not enclosed by a membrane. The DNA is circular.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus, surrounded by a membrane called the nuclear envelope. The nucleus contains linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins, forming chromatin. The nucleus functions as the control center of the cell, regulating gene expression and cell division.
4. Genetic Material
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotes have a single, circular chromosome, which contains all the necessary genes for survival. In addition to the main chromosome, prokaryotes often have small, circular DNA molecules called plasmids, which can carry additional genes, such as those for antibiotic resistance.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells have multiple, linear chromosomes located within the nucleus. The number of chromosomes varies among species. Eukaryotes do not typically carry plasmids, although some fungi and protozoa may have extrachromosomal elements.
5. Ribosomes
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic ribosomes are smaller (70S) and consist of two subunits: 30S and 50S. Ribosomes are scattered throughout the cytoplasm and are responsible for protein synthesis.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic ribosomes are larger (80S) and consist of two subunits: 40S and 60S. Eukaryotic ribosomes can be found in the cytoplasm (free ribosomes) or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (bound ribosomes), playing a crucial role in protein synthesis 

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6. Membrane-bound Organelles
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles. Their cellular processes occur directly in the cytoplasm or are associated with the cell membrane. For example, cell membrane is involved in energy production through processes like respiration and photosynthesis.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells contain various membrane-bound organelles, each with specialized functions:
• Nucleus: Contains genetic material and regulates cellular activities.
• Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, responsible for energy production through cellular respiration.
• Chloroplasts: Found in photosynthetic eukaryotes like algae, responsible for photosynthesis.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and modification, while smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
• Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules, cellular debris, and foreign invaders.
• Vacuoles: Storage and transport organelles, larger in plant cells and algae.

Eukaryotic cell (https://images.app.goo.gl/DQ1g55zqAorugUEt8)

7. Cell Division
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually through binary fission, a simple process where the cell divides into two identical daughter cells. The process is rapid, allowing for quick population growth under favorable conditions.  Some bacteria reproduce through budding, fragmentation, spore formation, etc also.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells undergo more complex processes of cell division. Mitosis is used for somatic cell division, resulting in two genetically identical daughter cells. Meiosis, on the other hand, is used in the production of gametes (in sexually reproducing organisms), resulting in four genetically diverse daughter cells.
8. Flagella and Motility
• Prokaryotes: Prokaryotic flagella are simpler in structure, composed of a protein called flagellin, and rotate like a propeller to provide motility. The arrangement and number of flagella in the cell can vary among different prokaryotic species.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic flagella (and cilia) are more complex, consisting of a "9+2" arrangement of microtubules. Eukaryotic flagella move in a whip-like motion, and cilia beat in coordinated waves to provide movement or move substances across the cell surface.
9. Cellular Respiration
• Prokaryotes: In prokaryotes, cellular respiration occurs in the cell membrane, where the electron transport chain is located. Prokaryotes can carry out aerobic or anaerobic respiration, depending on the availability of oxygen and the organism's metabolic capabilities.
• Eukaryotes: In eukaryotes, cellular respiration primarily occurs in the mitochondria, where the electron transport chain is housed. Eukaryotic cells primarily rely on aerobic respiration, but some can also undergo anaerobic processes, such as fermentation, in the absence of oxygen.
10. Genetic Recombination
• Prokaryotes: Genetic recombination in prokaryotes occurs through processes like conjugation (transfer of plasmids via direct cell-to-cell contact), transformation (uptake of free DNA from the environment), and transduction (transfer of DNA by viruses). These processes contribute to genetic diversity and adaptability through horizontal gene transfer.
• Eukaryotes: Eukaryotic cells undergo genetic recombination during sexual reproduction through meiosis, where homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material (crossing over). This process generates genetic diversity in offspring.

Evolutionary Implications

The structural differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells reflect their evolutionary histories. Prokaryotes are the earliest forms of life, and they have simpler structures adapted to a wide range of environments. Eukaryotes evolved later and developed complex cellular organization, allowing for greater specialization and the evolution of multicellular organisms.

The Endosymbiotic theory suggests that mitochondria and chlopoplasts in today's eukaryotic cells were once separate prokaryotic microbes.  These organelles in eukaryotic cells is hypothesised to be originated from ancient prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by another cell, and instead of being digested or killed, the inner cell survived.  Then both cells thrived and  evolved together.  This theory is supported by the fact that mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and resemble prokaryotic cells in structure and function.

 

Fungal diseases

 

Fungal diseases

Fungi are eukaryotic; have rigid cell wall containing chitin, mannan, etc and have true nucleus with chromosomes.  They divide asexually, sexually or by both processes.

Most fungi are soil saprophytes and act as human opportunistic pathogens. Fungal diseases are common and a few are fatal

Depending on cell morphology – fungi are of 4 types

1. Yeasts or unicellular fungi – spherical or ellipsoidal cells – Cryptococcus neoformans
2. Yeast like fungi – grow partly as yeast and partly as elongated cells resembling hyphae – candida albicans
3. Moulds or filamentous fungi – forms true mycelia and spores – dermatophytes
4. Dimorphic fungi – grow as filaments in soil and in cultures at 22^oC and as yeast in human body and in cultures at 37^oC. Most fungal pathogens. Sporothrix shenckii

Lab identification – microscopic examination of material from lesion.  Tissue specimens are put in 10% KOH to digest cells and tissue materials and stained with lactophenol cotton blue or periodic acid Schiff or methanamine silver stains

Slide culture – media used are sabourauds dextrose agar/ czapeck dox medium / corn meal agar.  Antibiotics may be added to prevent bacterial contamination.  Incubation for weeks at room temperature or at 37^oC.  Observation of colony morphology, spore morphology, etc helps in identification.

Fungus infections or mycoses

      1. Superficial mycoses – tinea or ringworm affecting nail, skin or hair, digest keratin, chronic mild disease

2. Systemic or deep seated mycoses – asymptomatic to fatally severe disease

3. Opportunistic Mycoses – avirulent fungi cause infection in immune compromised persons

Superficial mycoses

1. Surface infections – fungi grow on the dead layer of skin, no contact with living tissue and cause no immune response, cause cosmetic effect only. Tinea versicolor, Tinea nigra, Piedra
2. Cutaneous infections – Dermatophytosis caused by dermatophytes, infection is confined to skin or mucosa but result in allergic and inflammatory responses.  Another example is candida albicans infection which may sometimes cause systemic infection and thus act as a bridge between superficial and deep mycoses

1. Tinea versicolor or Pityriasis versicolor – chronic, asymptomatic infection of stratum corneum (the outermost layer of the epidermis).  Discolouration or depigmentaion of skin of chest, abdomen, upper limb or back.  Causative agent is pityrosporum orbiculare or Malassezia furfur.  Diagnosis by observation of yeast like cells in skin scraping

2. Tinea nigra - Localized infection of stratum corneum of palm and cause black or brownish lesions.  Caused by Cladosporum wernickii or Hortaea wernickii. Diagnosis by observation of branched septate hyphae and budding cells in skin scraping

3. Piedra – Infection of hair, appearance of firm, irregular nodules along the hair. Two types - black piedra caused by Piedraia hortae and white piedra caused by Trichosporon beigelii

4. Dermatophytosis – infection by filamentous fungi that infect hair, nail and skin.  Dermatophytosis is also known as tinea or ringworm.  Grow in the keratinized layers of skin and donot penetrate living tissues.  The fungal products cause inflammatory response and the resulting hypersensitivity is responsible for the lesions and is known as dermatophytids or the id reaction.

Hair infection is of two types – Ectothrix spores are seen within the hair shaft and Endothrix where spores are seen as a sheath surrounding the hair

Based on the location of infection –

Tinea corporis – smoot nonhairy skin of body

Tinea imbricata – papulosquamous scaly patches

Tinea cruris – in groin and perineum

Tinea pedis or athletes foot – affects foot

Tinea capitis – scalp

Favus – hair follicles

Three genera – Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton.

Trichophyton rubrum cause chronic treatment resistant skin lesions.  Form powdery velvety or waxy colonies on culture and form micro and macroconidia. 

Microsporum canis - Infect hair and skin.  Form cotton like, velvety or powdery colonies and form microconidia

Epidermophyton flocosum infects skin and nail.  Powdery colonies with macroconidia. 

Diagnosis – microscopic examination of KOH mounts or by UV light exposure analysis of infected hair which will be fluorescent.

Dermatophytosis is anthropophilic, zoophilic or geophilic. 

Anthropophilic – human beings are only host, cause mild chronic lesions - Trichophyton rubrum, Epidermophyton flocosum  

Zoophilic – naturally animal parasites, cause severe inflammation in human beings, Microsporum canis

Geophilic – naturally present in soil, less pathogenic towards human beings, Microsporum gypseum

5. Candidosis by candida albicans – infection of skin, mucosa, and rarely of internal organs, is pportunistic infection. candida albicans  is ovoid or spherical budding cell with pseudomycelia

Cutaneous candidosis – intertriginous (area where two skin areas may touch or rub together) or paronychial (Inflammation of the tissue surrounding a fingernail or toenail) with scaling or moist lesions and will be erythematous. 

Vaginitis – acidic discharges and found commonly during pregnancy

Oral thrush – in bottle fed infants and in aged debilitated persons where creamy white patches are formed in tongue or buccal mucosa

Intestinal candidosis – as diarrhea in person weak from antibiotic treatment

Bronchopulmonary candidosis, septicemia, endocarditis, mengitis, etc

Candida granuloma and chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis in immunodeficient persons

Diagnosis by microscopy and culture

Deep mycoses

Two types -     Subcutaneous mycoses - Infections that affect the subcutaneous tissue

Systemic mycoses - Infections that affect the internal organs

Subcutaneous mycoses

1.      Mycotic mycetoma

2.      Chromoblastomycosis

3.      Sporotrichosis

4.      Rhinosporidiosis

5.      Subcutaneous phycomycosis

Systemic mycoses

1.      Cryptococcosis

2.      Blastomycosis

3.      Paracoccidioidomycosis

4.      Coccidioidomycosis

5.      Histoplasmosis

Mycotic mycetoma – chronic, slowly progressing disease of subcutaneous tissue of foot and rarely other part of the body caused by actinomycetes and filamentous fungi.  Similar situation botryomycosis is caused by Staphylococcus aureus

The fungi enter through minor trauma and disease begin as subcutaneous swelling of foot which grow deep inside and discharge viscid, seropurulant fluid containing granules (granules are microcolonies of the fungi)

Chromoblastomycosis or verrucous dermatitis – warty cutaneous nodules which resemble florets of cauliflower, mainly in lower leg and feet. Caused by Fonsecaea species, Cladosporium species

Phaeohyphomycosis – by Cladosporium in Cutaneous, subcutaneous or organs such as brain and lung in immunodeficient patients

Sporotrichosis – by Sporothrix shenckii, cause nodules in skin, subcutaneous tissues and lymph nodes which soften and break down to form ulcers.  Infection acquired through thorn pricks as the fungus is a saprophyte found on plants.  The fungus is dimorphic and this feature aids in identification

Rhinosporidiosis – caused by Rhinosporidium seeberi.  chronic granulomatous infection of the mucous membranes that usually manifests as vascular friable polyps on nasal mucosa or external structures of the eye.

Subcutaneous phycomycosis – caused by Basdibolus haptosporus.  Painless subcutaneous nodule develops which enlarges to a whole limb or large areas of body and the infection is supposed to be acquired through insect bites

Cryptococcosis – Also known as European Blastomycosis.  Subacute or chronic disease caused by Cryptococcus neoformans.   Ovoid cells with polysaccharide capsule and commonly found in pigeon or other bird fecal matter.

Infection is through inhalation or through skin or mucosa.  Pulmonary infection may be asymptomatic or with a mild pneumonitis.  Sometimes results in Cutaneous or meningeal disease, bones and joints may be involved.   Cryptococcal meningitis is serious disease which is often seen in AIDS.

Diagnosis by microscopic observation of capsulated yeast in lesions, or by culture, inoculation into mice.

Blastomycosis – Also known as North American Blastomycosis. Caused by Blastomyces dermatitidis.  Cause formation of suppurative or granulomatous lesions in any part of the body, especially in lungs and skin. Soil is the source of fungi.  Initial lesion is a papule around which nodules develop and joins together to form a large ulcerative lesion.

Paracoccidioidomycosis – caused by Paracoccidioides brasileinsis and known as South American Blastomycosis.  Symptoms are ulcerative granulomas of the buccal and nasal mucosa. The fungus is dimorphic which helps in its lab diagnosis

Coccidioidomycosis – caused by coccidioides immitis.  The infection is asymptomatic, severe or fatal.  Infection is through inhalation. The fungus is dimorphic.

Histoplasmosis – caused by Histoplasma capsulatum.  Fungus is present in soil and in bird feces.  Infection is acquired through inhalation and is asymptomatic. Some persons develop symptoms similar to tuberculosis.  Sometimes results in lymphadenopathy, hepatosplenomegaly, anemia and may be fatal.  The fungus is dimorphic and in tissues it is present inside phagocytes.

Diagnosis by microscopy of blood smear, lesions, biopsy, etc. serological tests like agglutination, complement fixation, etc are also useful. 

African histoplasmosis is caused by Histoplasma duboisii which affects mainly skin, subcutaneous tissues and bones

Opportunistic infections – Normally harmless fungi that cause infection in persons who are immunologically weak. 

Examples are Aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus species, Penicillosis caused by Penicillium marneffei, Mucormycosis caused by Mucor, Rhizopus and Absidia, Otomycosis (infection of ear) caused by Aspergillus, Oculomycosis (infection of eyes) caused by Aspergillus, Fusarium, Candida, etc

 

Mycotic Poisoning

 

The Microbial World: An Overview of Microorganism Types and Their Roles

 

The Microbial World: An Overview of Microorganism Types and Their Roles

The five-kingdom classification is a system for classifying living things into five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.  It was proposed by North American ecologist Robert Whittaker in 1969.

(https://images.app.goo.gl/qZonVfFhntmX2F1M9) 

(https://images.app.goo.gl/qK3SqNKeWi9YcBzX9)

The microbial world encompasses a vast diversity of microscopic organisms that play crucial roles in various ecosystems, human health, industry, etc. These microorganisms include bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, protozoa and algae. Despite their small size, microorganisms have a profound impact on the environment, global biogeochemical cycles, and even in the evolution of life on Earth.

Types of Microorganisms

1.     Bacteria

o    Structure: Bacteria are unicellular, prokaryotic organisms characterized by a simple cell structure lacking a nucleus. Their genetic material is typically organized in a single circular chromosome.

o    Shapes: They come in various shapes such as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spiral-shaped), and vibrio (comma-shaped).

(https://images.app.goo.gl/XUU1j31eAyQpRtQT9)

o    Metabolism: Bacteria can be autotrophic (capable of producing their own food through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis) or heterotrophic (relying on external sources of organic carbon).

o    Roles:

§  Decomposition: Bacteria break down dead organic matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.

§  Nitrogen Fixation: Some bacteria, such as Rhizobium, convert atmospheric nitrogen into assimilable form that plants can use.

§  Pathogenesis: Some bacteria cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants (e.g., Salmonella, Vibrio, Clostridium, Xanthomonas, Agrobacteriumetc).

§  Industrial Applications: Used in the production of antibiotics, fermentation processes, bioremediation, and waste treatment.

2.     Archaea

o    Structure: Similar to bacteria, archaea are unicellular and prokaryotic but possess unique cell membrane lipids and genetic machinery that distinguish them from bacteria.

(https://images.app.goo.gl/FnmQgVWxHiP56Coe9)

o    Habitats: Archaea often inhabit extreme environments such as hot springs, salt lakes, and deep-sea hydrothermal vents, but are also found in common environments.

o    Roles:

§  Methanogenesis: Some archaea produce methane, a potent greenhouse gas, through the process of methanogenesis. This is critical in anaerobic environments like wetlands and the guts of ruminants.

§  Extreme Environment Adaptation: They help scientists understand life’s potential adaptability to extreme conditions, which has implications for the study of extraterrestrial life.

3.     Viruses

o    Structure: Viruses are acellular entities composed of genetic material (DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid; some viruses have an additional lipid envelope.  Shape of virus varies with different groups of viruses. Most of the animal viruses are roughly spherical, some are irregular and pleomorphic. Poxviruses are brick-shaped, rabies virus is bullet-shaped, tobacco mosaic virus is rod-shaped. Bacteriophages have a complex morphology.  They consist of nucleic acid core surrounded by a protein coat called capsid. The capsid is composed of a large number of capsomers which are polypeptide molecules arranged symmetrically.  The capsid with the enclosed nucleic acid is known as nucleocapsid.  

Viral architecture is grouped into three based on the arrangement of morphologic subunits:

(1) Icosahedral symmetry (2) Helical symmetry (3) Complex structures.

o    Replication: Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, they can only replicate inside the cells of a host organism.

(https://images.app.goo.gl/nwj9BK34M3h1AX1x5)

o    Roles:

§  Pathogenesis: Viruses cause a wide range of diseases in humans (e.g., influenza, HIV/AIDS, COVID-19), animals, and plants.

§  Genetic Exchange: Through processes like transduction, viruses can transfer genetic material between organisms, influencing evolution.

§  Biotechnological Applications: Viruses are used as vectors in gene therapy and vaccine development.

4.     Fungi

o    Structure: Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that can be unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular (molds and mushrooms). Their cell walls are primarily composed of chitin.

o    Nutrition: Fungi are heterotrophic and obtain nutrients by decomposing organic material, either as saprophytes (decomposers) or as parasites.

(https://images.app.goo.gl/xBWTxZkudCfYzH4K9)

(https://images.app.goo.gl/VJysMcqXzwhSBK9JA)

o    Roles:

§  Decomposition: Fungi play a key role in breaking down complex organic compounds, such as lignin in wood, contributing to nutrient cycling in ecosystems.

§  Symbiosis: Fungi form mutualistic relationships with plants (mycorrhizae) and algae/cyanobacteria (lichens).

§  Pathogenesis: Some fungi cause diseases in plants, animals, and humans (e.g., Candida albicans in humans, Phytophthora infestans in plants).

§  Industrial Applications: Used in the production of antibiotics (e.g., penicillin), fermentation processes (e.g., brewing, baking), and biotechnology.

5.     Protozoa

o    Structure: Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms with complex cell structures. They are single-celled organisms that belong to the kingdom Protista and are either free-living or parasitic.

(https://images.app.goo.gl/bZGKVKjgR1VYz3qu9)

o    Habitats: Found in a variety of environments, including freshwater, marine, and soil habitats.

o    Based on the locomotory organelles, the phylum protozoa is further classified into five classes,

§  1. Mastigophora - Flagella act as locomotory organs. Examples -  Leishmania, Volvox, Euglena, etc.

§  2. Sarcodina - Pseudopodia act as locomotory organs. Examples -  Amoeba, Entamoeba, Arcella, etc.

§  3. Sporozoa - They have no locomotory organs. Examples are parasites such as Plasmodium, Monocystis, etc.

§  4. Ciliata - Cilia act as locomotory organs. Examples -  Paramoecium, Vorticella, etc.

§  5. Suctoria - Adults do not possess any locomotory organs. Examples -  Ephelota.

o    Roles:

§  Ecological Roles: Protozoa are important in food chains, acting as primary consumers that feed on bacteria and algae, and in turn, serve as food for higher trophic levels.

§  Pathogenesis: Some protozoa are parasites that cause diseases in humans and animals (e.g., Plasmodium species cause malaria, Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebiasis).

§  Symbiosis: Certain protozoa live in symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as the gut microbiota in ruminants, aiding in digestion (Epidinium, Entodinium, Diplodinium, etc).

6.     Algae

o    Structure: Algae are diverse, primarily aquatic, photosynthetic organisms that can be unicellular (e.g., diatoms) or multicellular (e.g., seaweeds).

o    Nutrition: Algae are autotrophic, using photosynthesis to convert sunlight into chemical energy.

o    Algae are classified into three classes

§  Chlorophyceae –green algae, due to the presence of pigments chlorophyll a and b. Examples are Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Chara

§  Phaeophyceae –brown algae, predominantly marine. They have chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids and xanthophyll pigments. Examples are Dictyota, Laminaria, and Sargassum

§  Rhodophyceae –red algae because of the presence of the red pigment, phycoerythrin. Examples are Porphyra, Gracilaria, and Gelidium.

(https://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/algae.html)

o    Roles:

§  Primary Production: Algae are primary producers in aquatic ecosystems, forming the base of the food web and contributing significantly to global oxygen production.

§  Symbiosis: Some algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms, such as corals, where they provide essential nutrients through photosynthesis.

§  Biofuel Production: Algae are studied and utilized for biofuel production due to their high lipid content and rapid growth rates.

§  Nutrient Cycling: Algae play a role in nutrient cycling, particularly in aquatic environments, by assimilating inorganic nutrients and influencing water chemistry.

Ecological and Environmental Importance of Microorganisms

Microorganisms are integral to the functioning of ecosystems. They drive critical processes such as decomposition, nutrient cycling, and primary production, influencing the health and stability of ecosystems. In addition, microorganisms are involved in the biodegradation of pollutants, making them essential for environmental remediation efforts.

While some microorganisms are pathogenic, causing diseases in humans, animals, and plants, others are beneficial and essential to human health. The human microbiome, consisting of trillions of microorganisms, plays a crucial role in digestion, immune function, and protection against harmful pathogens.

The microbial world is incredibly diverse and plays indispensable roles across various domains of life and industry.  Microorganisms are harnessed in various industries for their metabolic capabilities. They are used in the production of antibiotics, enzymes, biofuels, and food products (such as yogurt, cheese, and bread). Advances in biotechnology continue to explore the potential of microorganisms in areas like synthetic biology, genetic engineering, and sustainable agriculture.